UNDP The Challenges of Linking

The UNDP Business Plan for 2000-2003 put forward by our Administrator, Mr. Mark Malloch Brown, poses the question "How can UNDP make the greatest contribution to human development and poverty eradication?" The answer, the Plan advocates, lies in leveraging UNDP’s comparative advantages of trust and impartiality. Moreover, by moving away from isolated projects benefitting relatively few, UNDP will be in a position to focus its assistance on activities where it can have the greatest impact. It will be providing upstream help to countries to develop policies and strengthen institutions that bring about equitable development. UNDP will be combining the roles of a neutral, yet highly networked partner, facilitator and catalyst.

This new focus responds to the complexity of the development challenge and to the fact that more players are becoming involved, not the least of which is civil society itself. It recognises the difficulties involved in decentralising, empowering and demanding accountability. Thus, it expects capacity-building, knowledge-networking and participatory approaches to be at the forefront of the new UNDP’s work.

If we couple the global trend to decentralise and empower with substantial urbanization trends and if we accept the likelihood of the most crucial issues of poverty eradication becoming more and more urban-related, we can anticipate a marked increase in requests for UNDP cooperation with local governments and city/towns institutions. In fact, the majority of UNDP’s Country Cooperation Frameworks – which define UNDP’s cooperation at the country level – already acknowledge a significant concern with the negative aspects of urbanization and express the need to take action.

It is in this context we have supported this simple, down-to-earth survey of city-to-city and community-to-community cooperation as a development modality. It is by no means a final product. By circulating it through our electronic networks, especially MAGNET (management and governance network), we would hope to motivate comments, suggestions and strengthened partnerships.

When properly implemented, city linking is already a proven modality for development at the sub-national level in terms of capacity-building and other aspects of governance, environment and poverty reduction.

They confirm the significance and effectiveness of city links that have been well thought through and sensitively managed. At the same time, the survey finds that a majority of links has suffered from lack of knowledge of how to link, realise their partnership’s potential and effectively address issues commonly arising. Within our limitations, UNDP is willing to do its part to address these gaps in cooperation with our partners, as demonstrated by this survey, so that linking can eventually achieve its full potential and complement the development mainstream.

We believe city-to-city cooperation may offers us an innovative approach to grasp unusual opportunities for impacting significantly on human development while at the same time deepening cross-cultural understanding and thus contributing to peace-building among nations.

G.Shabbir Cheema
Director
Management Development and Governance Division
Bureau for Development Policy
UNDP

Acknowledgements

This paper has been prepared under the overall coordination of Mr. Jonas Rabinovitch, Senior Urban Development Advisor, MDGD/BDP, under the leadership of Mr. G.Shabbir Cheema, Director, Management Development and Governance Division/Bureau for Development Policy. The main author is Mr. Nigel Ringrose of UNDP, acting on behalf of MDGD/BDP. The electronic dissemination was possible due to the efforts of Jose Cruz Osorio, Joao de Souza and Roderick Resurreccion of MDGD/BDP.

We would like to convey our thanks to the many people who have assisted in the preparation of this publication, particularly to Mrs. Dorothy Hilbert, for her assistance in gathering data, and Mrs Els Besse (City of Haarlem, Netherlands), Mrs Andrea Connell and Mr. Jacques Jobin (IULA), Mr. Drew Horgan, Dr. Robert Hodgson (University of Exeter), Mr. Charles Katiza (African Union of Local Authorities), Mrs Jane Knight, (United Kingdom One World Linking Association), Mr. David Lockwood (UNDP, Bangladesh), Mr. Patrice Chiwota, Mr. Carlos Lopes and Mr. Pauli Kariniemi (UNDP, Zimbabwe), Professor Jossy Materu (World Bank), Mr. Selim Mungai (Kenya One World Linking Forum), Mr. Peter Nyoni (African Community Development Initiative), Mrs Carmella Riddell (Boston U.K./Jalchatra Link), Mr. Mark Sheldrake (Society of Local Authority Chief Executives, UK), Mr. Vernon Smith (Local Government International Bureau, UK), Mr. Gus Stahlmann (City of Guelph, Canada) and Mr. Phan Duc Thang (UNDP, Vietnam), for their extensive and invaluable advice on our research findings.

We are also indebted to the link coordinators and their colleagues in the forty cities and towns visited during the course of our research. This report could not have been compiled without their support and participation.

UNDP - Management Development and Governance Division/Bureau for Development Policy
New York March 2000

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Context

The recent series of United Nations Conferences, highlighting the major issues in poverty reduction and environmental protection, has advocated an agenda for development calling for innovation and new partnerships. At the same time, many governments are now working towards greater decentralisation of their administration, while the practice of international cooperation itself is more and more including programmes at the institutional and local levels as well. Local government is well recognised as a sphere of governance. It is in these contexts, and in particular the commitments which UNDP made at Habitat II, that the Urban Management Team of UNDP’s Management Development and Governance Division has undertaken a study of city-to-city cooperation, or linking, between towns in the North and the South.UNDP has looked into the results which links have been obtaining in terms of poverty reduction and sustainable development, as well as their role in building understanding and trust between nations.

We have two reasons for undertaking our research. The first is a recognition that the development agenda as a whole is shifting to urban areas. In parallel with growing urbanisation we see corresponding concerns to decentralise decision-making and bring it closer to the people. We seek therefore to provide town and city mayors, parliamentarians, NGOs and other community leaders, together with decision-makers in central government, with an assessment of the state-of-the-art of city-to-city cooperation and the benefits which a link can bring to both partner communities in addressing urban issues.

The second reason for the review is to see whether there could be a role for the United Nations Development Programme in support of linking, as an additional modality for development cooperation, in cooperation with our partners. Are there ways in which UNDP could add value to the work which others are already doing in the field of community-to-community cooperation and make a difference?

Findings

In terms of development, our review finds that some links are making important contributions to combatting poverty. Moreover, links are fostering greater international understanding and so helping to create a global culture of peace and enhanced prospects for global governance, by improving linkages between a globalising world and local action.

__________

1 Habitat II, was held in June 1997 in Istanbul, Turkey. Concluding the series of UN Conferences started with the Children's Summit in 1990 and the Earth Summit in 1992, Habitat II was attended by Heads of State, other high-level representatives of governments and by international organisation and NGOs. At the Conference, UNDP committed itself to support governments, NGOs and other partners at the country level through its global network of country offices. Partnerships with cities' associations, local authorities, NGOs and the private sector would receive special attention.

2 A link (viz. city-to-city cooperation) is a partnership between communities, based on mutuality and equity. It is defined further in Section 3.1 on page 10.

3 The terms "North " and "South" are used to indicate the group of countries commonly indicated as being, respectively, industrialised and developing. The term "East", to be found on later pages, refers to the countries of Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Concrete improvements to the lives of poor communities in the South have come about through their links with the North. Priorities – notably for clean water, better child and maternal health, literacy and education, vocational training, income generation and waste disposal - have been addressed successfully through a community’s link partnership with the North.

In addition, Southern municipal leaders have been drawing on the knowledge and experience of their partner municipality to address needs in management and administration, prerequisites for providing essential services that are adequate and help the disadvantaged members of the community towards meeting their basic needs. As a result, gains have been made in such areas as financial management, tax collection, environmental management and urban planning. Moreover, many links are proving effective in addressing local concerns for greater civil awareness and good governance.

Successful links, however, are two-way. Northern link partners have cited examples of how their communities have also benefitted as a result of the ties created between the partner communities, leading to their better awareness and understanding of the wider world and other cultures. Links based on the combined efforts of city hall and the community at large, and drawing on the resources of the partner towns themselves to provide the core contributions to their link, appear to be the most sustainable. Thus, the features which we have found common to successful links are community-wide participation, commitment by all parties to their link, mutual understanding and the concept of reciprocity.

Regrettably, there are numerous links which have not been doing well in terms of their impact on poverty reduction in the Southern community. While some links have not reached their potential, and their results are marginal, others have altogether failed. Unsuccessful links have been handicapped for one reason or another, most commonly by a lack of easy access to advice and information on what works in linking, and what does not. Whereas linking is no less complex than other modalities of development, many link partners appear to have made only limited contact with others. Thus they have not reaped the benefits that flow from exchanging views and learning from the experiences of others, as is the practice among development agencies and NGOs.

__________

4 Readers are invited to consult Annex 1, containing six case studies of successful links.

Also regrettable is the fact that North-South links are still few. Whereas the total number of links of all types worldwide is estimated at being in the range of 15,000-20,000, the majority are North-North social and cultural links. The number of these which are North-South are relatively few. Indeed, the overall percentage of Northern towns with links with the South, as compared with the total number of towns and cities existing in the North, is very small. Thus, linking’s existing impact at the national level has been peripheral. We attribute the relative scarcity of North-South links to the prevailing limited awareness of linking, a factor which impedes its spread. Although there are international, regional and national associations with mandates to support city-to-city cooperation, the majority of these associations do not yet have the capacity they need to promote linking comprehensively among their members.

Government encouragement of city-to-city cooperation is a prerequisite for the spread of linking. Our research leads us to believe that governments generally favour linking and support its continued growth. In the North, some governments are providing town and city links with "topping-up" of core contributions made by the community itself; others are providing towns with their main funding for the link. In the South, there is evidence to suggest that governments see the potential usefulness of linking and would like to facilitate its spread.

The challenge

The challenge is to bring linking into the development mainstream and, without changing its underlying nature, to enhance its effectiveness. Linking should not continue to reside on the margin of development. Nor need it so often fail to achieve what it is capable of achieving. If the concepts of North-South linking were to be adopted by the majority of towns and cities of the North, its impact could become significantly more widespread and meaningful. If towns had more information on linking’s state of the art, links would be in a better position to reach their potential.

It is necessary to publicise and popularise linking. The benefits a link can bring to its partners, North and South, have to be known to city leaders and other decision-makers. The experiences of link practitioners, and their knowledge of how their link impacts on each partner, has to be shared with councils and community organisations in towns which do not yet have a North-South link.

It is equally important to help future links to draw on the best practices which other towns have arrived at, so that the prospects for each new link are maximised. This is especially relevant today, when donors are increasingly interested in spreading their cooperation through decentralised channels – a trend that offers an excellent opportunity for scaling-up linking. Linked communities will need to seek out ways to garner the support of such donors - as well, for that matter, of all other stakeholders - while at the same time maintaining the degree of independence that is essential for their link’s success and sustainability.

_________

5 A very few countries, however, such as France and the Netherlands, have a large number of North-South links.

A role for UNDP?

A particular strength of linking is its direct, people-to-people approach, involving little bureaucracy and minimal third-party intervention. We believe these characteristics make it an effective modality not only for local development in the South but also as a vehicle for building bridges across ethnic, religious and other divides. Accordingly, we are exploring a number of possible ways for UNDP to help communities, and their central governments, meet the challenges of linking. We would welcome comments and suggestions.

UNDP would like to explore possibilities to strengthen its cooperation with cities’ associations, following the commitments made at Habitat II and a positive history of cooperation during the International Colloquia of Mayors held at United Nations headquarters (1994, 1997) and other activities. Potential partners would include the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA), the World Federation of United Towns (UTO), Metropolis, the Summit of the World’s Major Cities and other cities’ associations and their organisations, including the World Associations of Cities and Local Authorities Coordination (WACLAC). UNDP is committed to becoming a partner of cities’ associations, independently from political, geographic, language or other eventual differences between them. UNDP supports the efforts of international cities’ associations to improve mechanisms "to speak with a single voice" to the international community.

In addition, in its dual role of neutral partner and broker, UNDP would offer, through its country office network, such supplementary advice and assistance as may be requested by national institutions. Whatever assistance UNDP might offer would be channelled through, and in support of, existing institutions and would be rendered, as always, in consultation with UNDP’s partners in central governments.

Development is inseparable from the quest for peace and human security. Recognising that links also contribute to global understanding and peace, and not to development alone, we believe the dual role which links perform should be acknowledged. A way to do this would be for the United Nations to accord a link whose local agenda essentially mirror the goals of the UN Charter itself with recognition as a "United Nations Link". In this respect, we recall Resolution 2861 of the UN General Assembly some years ago:

"International cooperation among communities is a natural complement to the cooperation of states and NGOs."

Consideration might therefore be given by the United Nations to according accredited status to such links. This might be effected in broadly the same way as is presently done for NGOs meeting certain criteria established by the UN General Assembly. The according of accredited status to a North-South link partnership would be an acknowledgment of the contribution which the two communities, and their leaders, are making to poverty reduction and sustainable development, international understanding and world peace.

We believe that today’s world has the capacity to fight poverty and the means to do so. Linking appears to have the potential to be an effective additional and widely-used means. Our research leads us to conclude that there might be a supporting role that UNDP could eventually play, assisting this form of partnership to join the mainstream of development and make an important contribution to greater understanding and peace.

2. BACKGROUND

"International cooperation among communities is a natural complement to the cooperation of states...."

Resolution 2861 (extract) of the UN General Assembly

2.1 UNDP and its Urban Development Cooperation Strategy

The eradication of poverty is the most compelling, yet daunting challenge of modern times.

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Bank and other agencies of the United Nations system and the Bretton Woods institutions, together with bilateral donors and non-government organisations (NGOs) work with governments of the South to bring about sustainable human development and the eradication of poverty in the countries. UNDP itself is focussing on ways and means to enlarge people’s choices, principally through institutional strengthening, technology transfer, vocational training, income generation, education and, more recently, by supporting initiatives in democratisation and other aspects of governance.

The signs of poverty and deprivation are the most acute in cities and towns where, by the turn of this century, half of the world’s poor will be found living in slum conditions. Thus UNDP, in collaboration with its UN agency partners as well as with other donors, is giving priority to assisting governments with programmes that address the most pressing issues of urban poverty.

The world community acknowledges the importance of action at the local level in addition to the national level. Local government is well recognised as a sphere of governance. And there is a growing understanding of the added value that town halls and the communities themselves can bring to the development arena. Thus the Urban Management Programme, a partnership of UNDP, the World Bank and the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS), is strengthening the contributions that towns and cities can make towards developing their own human resources for tackling their most urgent problems. In addition, UNDP is collaborating with the International Union of Local Authorities and other associations to augment their capacity to play a prominent role in implementing the development agenda agreed upon at the Habitat II Conference in 1996.

2.2 UNDP’s reasons for researching linking

__________

6 Extract from United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2861, XXVI Session. The full text of the resolution appears on the back cover.

In spite of the considerable efforts being made by governments, intergovernmental agencies and NGOs, there are now more poor people than ever before. During the past twenty-five years, the gap between the richest and the poorest has doubled. In the urban areas it is estimated that the number of persons living in poverty has risen to six hundred million. It is forecast that twenty-five years hence, "...there will be as many new slums and poor residents as there are existing today." Indeed, we live in a planet which represents not one world but two. Towns and cities, though they are undeniably centres of great opportunity, present us with the paradox of also being home to widespread social exclusion and the greatest number of the poor. Indeed, "we cannot ignore the fact that poverty in cities¼is a majority phenomenon i.e. affecting a majority of the population."

It is therefore unsurprising that there is a widespread concern to find new approaches which will help to close the gap between the two worlds. The recent series of United Nations Conferences, beginning with the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and culminating with Habitat II, has highlighted the major issues. At Habitat II, UNDP reiterated its commitment to furthering the implementation of the new development agenda. One product of these Conferences is an understanding that the agenda must now call for innovation and new partnerships. New concepts should focus on enabling the poor to change and improve their own predicament.

"Poverty has many faces. It is much more than low income. It also affects poor health ands education, deprivation in knowledge and communication, inability to exercise human and political rights and the absence of dignity and self-respect. Behind these faces of poverty lies the grim reality of desperate lives, without choices and often, governments that lack the capacity to cope."

Human Development Report, UNDP, 1997

__________

7 Human Development Report, UNDP, 1997

8 The State of World Population, Changing Places: Population, Development and the Urban Future, UNFPA, 1996.

9 World Bank presentation at the Local Government International Bureau (UK) Conference on "Eliminating poverty through partnerships", London, 15 September 1999.

10 Mr. Philippe Haeringer, Senior Researcher, ORSTOM, at the First Forum of the World Alliance of Cities Against Poverty, held in October 1998 in Lyon, France.

Human Development Report, UNDP, 1997

Governments recognise that they cannot act alone. "Globalisation trends are emphasising in an unprecedented way the importance of local and metropolitan levels of democracy and management. While acting globally, the world community acknowledges the importance of local actions." It is being said that the twenty-first century will be the century of partnerships, involving central governments, local governments, civil society organisations and the private sector. With the move towards decentralising decision-making and bringing government closer to the people, devolvement of responsibility and authority from the centre is becoming more common. At the town and city level, the townspeople themselves have greater opportunity to participate in their community’s affairs and to take part in "people-centred" development. In the words of the World Federation of United Towns (UTO), "....the international community as a whole is convinced that, to establish the conditions for sustainable development, action initiated on the local level is vital."

International cooperation is moving towards cooperation at the institutional and local level. Local authorities and urban community groups are being empowered to enter into direct cooperation with towns and cities in other countries and to engage, with their foreign partners, in development and other activities of mutual interest. Southern communities, eager to benefit from collaboration with the North , enter into agreements with Northern communities who are looking for opportunities to go beyond the passive and traditional form of support for addressing developing countries’ needs, and to come into closer contact with Southern realities.

It is in the context of the call for new partnerships, as well as global moves towards greater decentralisation and the rapidly rising urbanisation in developing countries, that UNDP felt it would be timely to find ways to give further recognition to the role which cities and towns, North and South, play at the local level in contributing to the global development effort. Thus UNDP decided to research the experience to date of city-to-city cooperation from the perspective of the contribution it makes to development, its relevance and its potential.

2.3 Characteristics of UNDP’s research

The purpose of our research has been to gain an insight into city-to-city cooperation, or linking. While concentrating on links which have development activities as their main objective, we have also looked at the wide variety of other links and link activities which have come about since inter-city "twinning" started soon after the end of World War II. Our aim is to ascertain the state of the art of linking, of what has worked and what has not, and to assess the scope for replicating the best practices that have evolved and the best results obtained.

__________

11 Mr. Jonas Rabinovitch, Senior Urban Development Advisor, UNDP, at the 101st Conference of the Inter-Parliamentary Union, held in April 1999 in Brussels, Belgium.

Linking has evolved in an unstructured way, with few if any guidelines. In this paper, we attempt to present a coherent picture of a somewhat complex, wide-ranging subject. By disseminating our findings to a wide audience, we hope our research will help local authorities, local institutions and businesses, community-based groups and NGOs, as well as policy-makers in central government, to acquire a reasonably comprehensive and fair picture of this topic.

Although our research should be seen as an introduction to linking rather than as a guide, it is suggested that we might follow up with such a guide during the course of 2000, improving on existing initiatives. The guide would be based on the differing, but generally complementary requirements of Southern and Northern communities alike. It would draw on the best practices developed by link practitioners themselves.

Additionally, the research we have undertaken can help us, in UNDP, to arrive at a policy decision as to whether and how we might support linking. We have tried to assess what UNDP and its country office network could usefully do, to facilitate linking’s quantitative and qualitative growth, by adding value to the ongoing work of national, regional and international institutions already engaged in North-South city-to-city cooperation.

In order to complement our experience, we have focussed our efforts on discussions with people who have experience in managing local links. We ourselves are not experts in linking, We have therefore focussed our efforts on discussions with people who have experience of managing links, both in the North and the South. These have been supplemented by meetings with governments, international, regional and national associations, NGOs, UNDP country offices - and programme beneficiaries. In the North, twenty towns and cities with Southern links have been visited and in the South, another twenty. While recognising that quite a large number of countries have gained valuable experience in linking, for practical reasons it has been necessary to limit the countries and number of links visited. However, we believe that the meetings we have had in six countries in the North and four in the South provide a fair representation of linking today.

Our visits were aimed at understanding what each link is doing and why, and to what extent a link is having the impact its partners intended. The visits were not evaluations. They did not aspire to obtaining an exhaustive picture of each programme. To do that would have called for considerably more time and resources and would not, it is thought, have been of sufficient incremental value.

A review of literature complemented the visits. Approximately one hundred and fifty publications and documents were perused. A bibliography is included in Annex 6.

__________

12 In the North: Canada, France, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom; in the South: Bangladesh, Mali, Vietnam and Zimbabwe.

13 Persons who are interested to obtain a more exhaustive picture of North-South linking, covering more countries than we have done, are recommended to read the IULA/VNG publication "Local Challenges to Global Change", prepared for the 1995 IULA Congress.

3. WHAT IS LINKING?

"We are now well into the formation of
an interactive planetary society, for the first time
ever in human history. This novel
interconnectivity has begun to
enmesh all strata of humankind."

This section describes what linking is, who links and why. It illustrates the prevailing wide variety of links, due to the fact that each type of link has evolved in its own way. It makes reference to South-South linking and discusses similarities - and differences - between development agencies and links.

3.1 What is linking?

There is no universally accepted definition of linking, or city-to-city cooperation. We propose to define it as a long-term partnership between communities in different cities or towns. A link is a relationship signifying mutuality. A link enables partner communities to engage themselves in matters of mutual interest and which they themselves determine. The agenda is open.

In this paper, a community is broadly defined as the citizens, local government administration, schools and other institutions, community based organisations and other groups which together comprise a sub-national geographic entity. This may be a city, town, borough or simply a neighbourhood within a city or town, and in rural areas either a district, cluster of villages or a single village. Thus a linking entity could be as large as an urban community of one million or more or as small as a cluster of villages with a population of 10,000 or even less. Most of today’s links are urban.

A variety of terms to describe link partnerships are in current use. The different terminology is confusing. Moreover each term itself may have different meanings. The commonly found expressions used to describe linking in its various forms are: twinning, jumelage, friendship link, decentralised cooperation, decentralised development cooperation, municipal international cooperation, partnership for development, joint local action, linking for development – and linking.

__________

14 Extract from Wilbur Zelinsky's essay: The Twinning of the World: Sister Cities in Geographic and Historical Perspective, Pennsylvania University.

15 The term "municipality" may be defined as being the "lowest level of local government".

The explanation for the confusion in terminology is to be found in linking’s origins and its subsequent unstructured evolution from a narrow to a wide range of objectives. When the first links were formed in Europe in the aftermath of World War II, cooperation between communities - or "twinning" as it was called, was seen by local leaders first and foremost as a means to build bridges of understanding and confidence between peoples of nations which had been at war. Twinning was aimed at bringing about social and cultural exchanges between civic officials, schools and community groups. Since then, while inter-city exchanges continue, linking has branched out in various directions, sometimes as a result of a community initiative, sometimes after a move made by the mayor, and on occasions as a result of "marriage brokering" by a bilateral or multilateral donor. We will not attempt to define each term since we believe it will merely confuse further. Instead, we use the word "linking" in a generic sense and apply it across the board to all forms of city-to-city cooperation.

3.2 Who is linking?

When city-to-city cooperation began, links were almost always between town halls. Led by mayors and civic leaders, they tended to be somewhat exclusive, consisting largely of high-level visits between the twinned towns, supplemented by cultural and sporting exchanges. Nowadays a link’s objectives are likely to be much broader than traditional twinnings. Community development with a focus on meeting basic needs, municipal capacity-building, awareness-raising and development education are now the most commonly found objectives. Matters of governance, strengthening local democratic institutions and encouraging wider community participation in every aspect of city life are emerging more frequently on agendas too.

These days, the link itself may be between the respective town halls, or between local institutions or local groups, or any combination thereof. Though the town mayor and her or his council, together with the local member of parliament, continue to play an important part in most links and the responsiveness of the town leaders is vital, the management of the link is usually shared with the community at large, typically through a board of trustees or similar arrangement. Often a community-based organisation will take the lead and manage the link, with the town council providing its good offices in support. Equally often, the council plays the lead role and draws community groups and institutions into the link.

`At each end of the link there will usually be a "link person" who plays a crucial role. She or he coordinates the link and is, de facto, the person primarily responsible for making the link a success. It is usual for a link to have started out by identifying matters of mutual interest and to be grounded, sooner or later, on a formal partnership agreement.

There are also what one might term specialised links, most commonly found between schools, universities and hospitals. In Entebbe (Uganda), for example, every school has a link to a school in the County of Dorset in the United Kingdom. The mayor of Entebbe’s primary aim is to build awareness of other cultures. The Uong Bi (Vietnam)/Pitea (Sweden) partnership exemplifies a hospital link with a focus on nursing, medicine and community health. The hospital in Ky Anh (Vietnam) is linked with the United Kingdom-based Medical and Scientific Aid Committee for Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. We should also note that this is a rare example of a link between a community on the one hand and, on the other, a group which is geographically dispersed, rather than another community. We include it here in order to illustrate the broad possibilities in linking.

There is another link model popular in the Netherlands, where the emphasis is often placed on using the link for the purpose of awareness-raising in the Dutch town concerned. A town in the North links with a NGO in the South. The Northern town channels funds, sometimes through a Northern NGO as intermediary, to the Southern NGO which takes responsibility for discussing, selecting and implementing programmes with the concerned Southern community. The NGO is expected to feed news back to the Northern town for use in its awareness-raising and development education work. The link which Waddinxveen (Holland) has with REST in Ethiopia, and also Eksjo (Sweden) with Nijera-Kori in Bangladesh, are such examples.

3.3 Why do communities link?

__________

16 Examples of link partnership agreements - Haarlem (Netherlands) with Mutare (Zimbabwe) and Hennebont (France) with Mourdiah (Mali) - are given in Annex 2.

Communities generally link in order to "...learn and gain from each other" (Alexandra Price, Sister Cities International). Why they link stems from a desire to enter into a North-South relationship centred on areas of mutual interest. These may be social, cultural, economic, technological or environmental. The desire to form a link may originate in the community at large or inside city hall. Often - in the North - there is a group or an individual who feels strongly that her or his community should become more aware of the developing countries and respond in a most direct way. Just as often, the link is social or political in origin, mayors or senior officials having met during an overseas trip.

In the North the underlying initial motivation to link is commonly a response to a sense of frustration of the continuing increase in Third World poverty, despite the multitude of efforts governments and society have made to overcome it. Whereas scope for involvement in the traditional conduits of development cooperation are to all intents and purposes beyond the reach of the man in the street, a link provides a direct way for the public at large to participate in development efforts and to obtain an accounting of their own community’s contributions - how they were spent and what was achieved. The second common denominator to most links is the need perceived by local leaders, inside or outside official circles, for development education and raising their community’s awareness of global issues.

__________

17 Intra-city, in contrast to city-to-city links may be established for similar motives. Different areas pf a city may choose to enter into linkage arrangements which are mutually beneficial. In this report, we limit ourselves to links between one city or community and another and which cross national boundaries.

Some links are humanitarian-based. An example, again from Vietnam, is the Hoa Binh network of schools and care centres, for children born disabled as a result of the effects of "Agent Orange". It is entirely supported by the town of Oberhausen in Germany. Others may focus on friendship exchanges, leading to understanding and respect for different societies and cultures. about – the basis for most of Norway’s links with the South – and awareness-raising. Another reason may be an interest to exchange ideas on environmental issues under the aegis of Local Agenda 21.

Many of the more recently established links aim at the exchange of knowledge and experience at the level of city hall, with the objective of strengthening the institutional capacity of the local administration in the South while broadening the experience and perspectives of the Northern partner. This mutuality of interest, which has attracted the interest of major development practitioners seeking the most cost-effective ways to disburse official development assistance funds, is growing most rapidly between city halls in the North and the CIS and Eastern Europe. The Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA)-supported programme of city-to-city cooperation with the Baltic States and Russia provides notable examples of this type of link. The European Union too is supporting this type of link, in addition to other forms of technical-assistance oriented links under its ASIA-URBS and other programmes.

There is thought to be potential in link activities directed at local economic development too. Some communities have been expanding their agenda to incorporate business activities. Mbale (Uganda)/London Borough of Kensington and Chelsea (UK), for example, have worked on ways of providing help to micro-businesses to create jobs and stimulate Mbale’s economy. The Bulawayo (Zimbabwe)/Aberdeen (UK) link has similar intentions. A limited number of trade links have been developed by Southern towns through their Northern partners.

There is no single rationale for deciding on a link. Nor for that matter, is there a single way to set a link up. Linking’s ad hoc-ism to date should not be seen as a drawback. On the contrary, we believe the greater success of linking in the future depends in large part on drawing on the wide experiences of the different approaches taken so far. This factor is emphasised in the speech of Jangu Le Carpentier, President Delegate, UTO to the 1994 International meeting for Decentralised Cooperation with Africa, sponsored by the Council of Europe:

"The present-day diversity [of linking] does not reflect a weakness, but on the contrary, a capacity to adapt itself to extremely diverse conditions. What is important today is the realisation that it is a concept with considerable impact. And if it possesses this impact, it is perhaps because it is a notion which is still a little vague. However, if we attempt to define it more precisely, we would be taking a risk: either it would be defined in such general terms that it becomes a maze of contradictions, or it would be defined in such a restrictive manner that everyone would be completely lost."

__________

18 "Local Agenda 21" constitutes the actions proposed by the Earth Summit for pursuit at the community level and is described in detail in Chapter 28 of the Summit's overall conclusions, generally known as Agenda 21.

3.4 South-South and other link combinations

This paper would not be complete without making reference to the merits of South-South and other inter-regional links.

South-South linking would appear to have particular comparative advantages, especially as regards the transfer of knowledge and experience between developing countries. Issues of urbanisation and environmental damage, innovations in health care and education, and bringing about good governance are examples of subjects where Southern communities can learn much from each other through link partnerships. Though the cultural divide may be no less than between a Northern and Southern town. their experiences can be at least as relevant to one another as learning about latest practices in the North. Professor Jossy Materu comments that links between African and Chinese cities have demonstrated the "....possibility of transferability of practices which are easier to adopt than those of the rich North". Thus some people may come to the view that South-South linking is of no less potential importance than North-South partnerships.

From a development viewpoint, South-South linking could parallel at the local level the exchanges of know-how that take place between developing countries at the central level. It could bring about a constant swapping of knowledge and ideas – if not at meetings, at least through modern communication systems - at the sub-national level. However, notwithstanding the multitude of efforts being made to promote the concept of South-South networking, active South-South links are still very few and the achievements modest. The funding needed to establish some minimum of face-to-face dialogue would appear to have been a major constraint.

For the future, town hall exchanges as well as the opportunities presented by regional conferences and other exchanges of experience organised under the auspices of IULA’s Regional Sections,

__________

19 UNDP's Unit for TCDC (technical cooperation among developing countries) encourages and financially supports the dissemination of best practices and the exchange of transferable and potentially replicable experiences in all social and economic sectors, both intra- and inter- regional.

the Commonwealth Local Government Forum and others, could provide the starting-point for establishing more South-South links. Research into South-South link partnerships and an assessment of their potential for growth and sustainability merit a separate study.

Links between North and East are becoming increasingly common following the establishment of the Commonwealth for Independent States. The proximity of the CIS members to Europe and the immediate trading potential are factors in popularising North-East links with European communities. While not examined as a separate category in this paper, their needs, problems and their potential are thought to be broadly similar to North-South links. Accordingly, our findings (Section 4) on North-South links may be regarded as applying, pari passu, to North-East links.

There are other inter-regional combinations of link too, such as the three-way links recently begun by a number of Northern towns - notably in the Netherlands and with the support of the Association of Netherlands Municipalities (VNG) - with the East and the South. We visualise there being North-South-South links also, in the future, where the Northern town facilitates the link up of its Southern partner with another Southern town as well and thus each partner having, as it were, the benefit of both worlds.

3.5 Links and development agencies

This Section compares and contrasts links with the programmes of development agencies - bilateral, multilateral and non-governmental - which are working at the city and town level. While it highlights aspects of links which distinguish them from conventional modalities of development assistance, it also suggests there is a measure of interdependence between them.

At first glance, links may appear much the same as development agencies. They function at the level of city hall and the community, where they may have a long term presence and build close relationships through strong local participation. A link agenda can closely parallel the agenda of a development agency. A link may have programmes which directly respond to a community’s basic needs, or enhance the capacity of the municipal administration to provide essential services or bring local government and the governed closer together through addressing issues of governance. In terms of sustainable development, both links and development agencies can be effective - or can fail.

However, links differ from conventional development in several respects. To begin with a link, unlike a development organisation, is not an institution though it is usually comprised of institutions - city halls, universities, hospitals, schools and such like. Instead, a link is a process, usually grounded on a formal partnership agreement such as the examples of Mutare/Haarlem and Mourdiah/Hennebont given in the Annexes.

__________

20 The table on page 31 illustrates the popularity, indeed the preference, of communities in certain Western European countries for links with the CIS and Eastern Europe.

The point of departure for link activities is that the partnership pursues its own agenda. Although the agenda may be influenced by external agencies ready to contribute their resources for a particular programme, it is the link partners themselves who decide on the programmes they will undertake. They formulate their agenda on the bases of equality of the partners and mutuality.

Another distinctive feature of linking is the role of reciprocity. While the partners recognise that they are highly unequal in material terms, they recognise also that the South has much it can do for its Northern partner in other ways. These may be significant, albeit if intangible, in terms of cultural values, development education, broadening experience and raising awareness of global issues. At times the benefits to the Northern partner may be concrete, especially in terms of know-how in low-cost, pragmatic ways to address common urban problems. Reciprocity presupposes that both partners should benefit. The partners do not view their link as one-way aid. In the words of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities, they see their link as a "two-way street". The benefits to the North can, in their own way, be expected to be just as significant as a link’s impact on sustainable development in the South.

Being a partnership, a link continues indefinitely. It is up to the partners to decide when, if ever, to end the relationship. Bamako (Mali) and Angers (France) have now been linked for twenty-five years. The core resources required for link activities will generally be raised through the efforts of the communities and their city halls themselves.

The activities of links and development agencies intersect at several points. Local level coordination should be bringing all parties together regularly. The efforts of link partners to generate more resources for their programmes will be bringing them into contact with donors seeking ways to support local development and governance. Thirdly, and most importantly, where there are gaps in the partners’ knowledge it becomes essential that they seek outside help for their programmes, especially in their early stages, if the pitfalls of inexperience are to be minimised. The advice and help of development professionals, from a specialised agency, NGO or other similar source, are of inestimable value to the partnership.

__________

21 Humanitarian links, such as the example of the Oberhausen/Hoa Binh link (page 12) may be exceptions to this, at least in their early years.

4. FINDINGS

"Learn from the people
Plan with the people
Begin with what they have
Build on what they know
Of the best leaders
When their task is accomplished
The people will remark
‘We have done it ourselves’."
Lao Tse

Our findings are based on the visits we have made to approximately fifty links and institutions in a number of countries in the North and the South. Notwithstanding the limitations of the size of the sample, we believe the links we have visited are representative of the knowledge and state of the art of linking around the world. We focus our findings on the results which links have obtained and the impact that they are having. We also discuss what we see as the four most important prerequisites for successful links: commitment, community-wide participation, mutual understanding and reciprocity. Towards the end of the section we present a perspective on linking quantitatively.

4.1 Results

The challenge of meeting the basic needs of Southern link partners tends to dominate most link agendas, at least in the first instance. As with other modalities for achieving social and economic development, linking’s results are variable - though seldom if ever wasteful in terms of the time and money invested in them. Even the smallest link, with a very modest budget, can make a difference out of proportion to the amount of money involved. As compared with other development modalities aimed at the local level and combatting poverty, linking’s direct "people-to-people" approach can be effective in helping the partners to avoid many of the dangers, such as paternalistic attitudes and donor dominance, all too common to traditional forms of development.

Our research has taken us to towns and cities where their link partnerships which are making important contributions to combatting poverty. Although in most cases the results achieved are meaningful yet modest in relation to the Southern partner community’s overall needs, concrete improvements to the lives of poor communities have been achieved. While most of the links we have visited are still far from realising their potential, we have met with a few, such as those outlined in the case studies in Annex 1, where the achievements are on many fronts and the local impact considerable.

Link successes have been recorded in addressing local people’s priorities for safe water, better child and maternal health, higher levels of literacy, more education and vocational training, opportunities for income generation and improved disposal of waste. At the level of the town hall, municipal leaders have been drawing on the knowledge and experience of their partner municipality to address needs in management, finance and administration. As a result, gains have been made in such areas as financial management, tax collection, environmental management and urban planning. Since linking not only builds trust between the partners but also encourages communication between a community and its leadership and enhances the relationships between them, some links are proving effective in promoting greater civil awareness and democratising city decision making.

4.2 Results, by sector

The ensuing paragraphs give examples of positive results achieved in five key sectors.

a.Health: Many links incorporate health issues in their development agendas, typically with emphasis on child and maternal health. The Boston (UK)/Jalchatra (Bangladesh) link began with the construction and staffing of clinics. Later, it added a maternity hospital, also with trained staff. Last year, 5,000 out-patients were treated at the hospital and 65 difficult births handled. Ante- and post-natal care was provided to 1,500 deliveries at home. Other aspects of the link’s support for the local community health programme include drinking water, sanitation, responsible parenthood, nutrition and inoculations. Immunisation coverage in the Jalchatra community is now 100%.

The overall effect of this integrated effort is a major advance in family health - the children are now taller than their parents - and a substantial reduction in infant and maternal mortality. The average number of children per family has gone down from eight to two. These achievements are especially significant when one takes into account the relatively small amount of funds that has been annually available for link activities in all sectors combined – on average US$40,000 a year (Annex 1).

The Angers (France)/Bamako(Mali) link is another example of a link with an emphasis on health. Standards of medical care have improved in Bamako as a result of the link’s interventions in the training of doctors and nurses, the renovation of the pediatric service at Bamako’s main hospital and the ongoing programme of building community health centres. The programme of technical assistance has been complemented by the shipment to Bamako of several tons of medicines and medical supplies.

The Pitea/Uong Bi link has led to the Uong Bi hospital becoming Vietnam’s main centre for the training of nurses, a profession which was little developed in the past. The MSAVLC/Ky Anh link has resulted in medical facilities being available in a town that was, at the time of the hospital’s construction, in a war zone and is today still in a very disadvantaged position. The one hundred and twenty bed hospital is the only one in the area, though this still necessitates for many patients a walk of up to fifty kilometres. The hospital’s greatest impact in recent years has been in treating malaria - deaths from malaria have been arrested - and reducing the incidence of blindness through cataract operations. Two hundred and fifty of such operations are being performed each year.

b.Education and literacy: links have increased child and adult literacy, especially for women. The Tiverton (UK)/Sunderban (Bangladesh) link has been successful in persuading the relatively wealthier members of a very poor Bangladeshi community to provide parcels of land for the construction of schools and literacy centres. It has also sensitised families to the importance of female literacy. To date, five schools have been started as well as twenty adult education centres.

In Bamako, under the auspices of its link with Angers, the city has enhanced the opportunities for children to broaden their horizons through the construction of learning/activity centres in each of the city’s six districts and a special centre for street children. The school system has also benefitted from the link’s teacher training programmes, the renovation of two schools and the sub-link between the Bamako and Angers public libraries through which books and publications requested by Bamako are sent from Angers, financed from the Angers library’s own budget.

The Nantes (France)/Rufisque (Senegal) link, jointly with Government, the district administration and the local parent- teacher’s association, has built a school with twelve classrooms, and with sanitation, in a highly disadvantaged part of Rufisque town. As there had been no school in the area for many years, a few children went to school elsewhere while the majority did not attend school at all. This situation has now changed and five hundred children are now attending their own neighbourhood school. In addition, collaboration has been organised with GREF, a French NGO, so that retired teachers from France are supplementing the faculty.

c.Environment: The two environmental projects under Guelph (Canada)’s link with Jinja (Uganda) are reporting positive results. The first relates to organic waste which, Jinja believes, accounts for ninety percent of the town’s garbage. Recognising the low level of support the municipality could give to waste disposal, and the spread of illegal dumping, it was decided to try out community composting. The outcome of the link’s support, including assistance from Guelph University, is the establishment of eight community composting projects which the city proposes to expand now that the efficiency of the composters has been demonstrated. The second concerns a tree nursery to produce eucalypts for fuelwood and fruit trees. More than 50,000 plants have been produced, plant sales are rising and self-sufficiency is expected within five years. The nursery’s increased revenue is to be used for the city’s plan to carry out a large-scale greening programme.

The Haarlem (Netherlands)/Mutare (Zimbabwe) link chose the environment as one of the three priorities their link would address. The major part of its environment-related activities has been to help Mutare municipality to prepare a Master Plan for improved handling of the city’s rubbish - domestic refuse and industrial and hazardous waste, and to control dumping and leakage. Implementation followed in 1997. With the assistance of the link, and coordination with "Environment 2000" - a NGO - the plan has been implemented in some high density areas of the city, where waste is now being separated - organic, glass, hazardous, etc. The plan will gradually be introduced in the rest of the city. The link has also provided two refuse collection vehicles and has been training the town services department in their operation and maintenance. The initiative has, in addition, led to the holding of a workshop at the national level, on hazardous waste and the establishment of national guidelines for the management of hazardous waste. Thus the link’s impact goes beyond Mutare’s city boundary.

d.Municipal management: Link projects within city hall and the municipal administration are a relatively recent, yet promising addition to the range of activities to be found within North-South links. It is becoming increasingly evident that municipal links can be highly cost-effective in terms of strengthening local-level institutional capacity sd well as contributing to good governance. Better planning and financial management, as well as critical improvements in the application of information technology, are features of many of these links.

The city of Kampala (Uganda), linked with Kirklees in the United Kingdom, has benefitted from technical cooperation which has developed the City Council’s institutional capacity to formulate a strategic reform programme providing a framework within which external agencies, such as the World Bank and the European Union, have been able to invest. Until recently it had been difficult for the Council to shape and direct the city’s social and economic development, in the absence of clear vision and strategic plans. Traffic circulation, for example, was a problem requiring serious attention. As a result of technical support from Kirklees, with exchanges of engineers between Kampala and Kirklees, a road traffic and investment plan has been arrived at - and accepted by the World Bank, which has agreed to provide the loan required to implement the plan.

The Hinton (Canada)/Chegutu (Zimbabwe) link is another example of a municipally-focussed link. At the Habitat II City Summit it was selected as a model of "best practice". One of the initial areas of concentration when the link began in 1991, was the upgrading of the town’s system of financial management. Chegutu’s finance and treasury departments were computerised and improved to the point where the town has increased its revenue base by raising its tax collection success rate from 50% to more than 75%. It has the expectation of further increases still to come. In addition, Chegutu’s backlog in preparing its annual accounts was cleared and, with its accounts now being audited and signed on a current basis, the town hall has qualified to receive World Bank funds under the Government of Zimbabwe/World Bank II infrastructure programme.

e.Governance: Though governance is discussed here last, its importance cannot be overstated. Issues of governance are rapidly gaining ground in the ‘development debate’. The Middlesborough (UK)/Masvingo (Zimbabwe) link protocol, signed in 1988, is thought to have been one of the first to explicitly include governance issues in its agenda. The protocol describes the link as being "...dedicated to the growth and preservation of local democracy in local government administration to ensure honest and efficient service to our two communities." Since then, improved governance has been receiving attention, explicitly and implicitly. We find plenty of evidence of town leaderships discussing with community representatives, and the representatives themselves dialoguing with the people, underscoring Charles Katiza’s observation that "....linking makes people participate in their own development."

__________

22 Charles Katiza is Secretary-General of the African Union of Local Authorities (AULA).

The results in governance may not yet be as numerous and as specific as in other areas, since this area has only relatively recently received such attention, but they are nonetheless significant. For example, when one of Jinja’s political leaders visited Guelph, "....he observed a spirited meeting of the Guelph municipal council that included representation from senior citizens, and became convinced that Jinja should institute more opportunities for community participation in municipal decision-making." This has happened, and the link has helped to bring about better meetings of the council, more public participation and better working relationships between the council and its staff, and its staff and the community at large. Through its link with Kirklees, the Kampala City Council too is enhancing its local governance and accountability.

The Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), in its evaluation of local authority links between towns in Sweden and the Baltic States, notes a number of "indicators of positive effects" including participation in local elections, information, the meaning and implications of democracy, as well as in the decision-making process. SIDA also records the spin-off effect, of many other contacts having been made between linked towns, as a result of the initial local authority link.

Sanankoroba, linked with Sainte-Elisabeth in Canada, has been singled out by the President of the Republic of Mali for its progress in matters of governance. Community committees of municipal leaders and traditional and religious representatives now include women and youth too. FCM reports that women now have easier access to services in Sanankoroba and more say in the decision-making processes.

Good governance and poverty reduction are recognised nowadays as being inseparable, governance providing the enabling frame within which the community can work to rid itself of poverty. "Governance is now recognised as one of the most important factors in determining the health and prospects of a society." This recognition suggests that link partners will increasingly choose to include in their agendas the ways and means to help their local authorities and institutions become fully reflective of the aspirations of the community.

4.3 Non-quantifiable results

__________

23 Quotation from the Annual Review (1996-97) of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM).

24 Quotation frpm "Crisis, Opportunity and Change. Building Tomorrow's UNDP", the November 1999 Report of UNDP's Transition Team.

Most links have benefitted in other important ways, but which are not readily quantifiable, as well. Some link partners go so far as to place their intangible gains higher in terms of community benefits than their link’s development work. Awareness-raising and development education are regarded as the most valuable intangible benefits. Through their North-South partnerships, communities in the North have gained an understanding of conditions in the South, as well as of Southern values. Through their greater awareness of global development and environment issues, they may also embrace a better understanding of the effects of globalisation on the poorest segments of societies Certainly, by being better informed, citizens at large are more readily able to participate in the development debate.

People managing links have repeatedly emphasised to us the value of learning about another culture. Through forming friendships and building trust, they begin to understand issues that affect their partner A British student working in Bangladesh for six months with the Boston/Jalchatra link writes back to her local newspaper: "¼¼it is amazing to see how even the simplest of things we take for granted in our country can make such a profound difference to these people’s lives." A comment made some years ago by the then mayor of the town of Leamington Spa, also in the UK, further exemplifies the richness of experience acquired by Northerners through linking with their Southern partners: When noting that Leamington Spa’s link with Bo (Sierra Leone) was affecting local people in many aspects of their lives, the mayor added that his children "come home talking about an ‘African’ visiting their school; I go to church and there is a Sierra Leonean priest saying mass and at the town hall I am greeting visitors from Bo or am chairing meetings of people talking about their visits to Bo. And when I go to the library there is an exhibition about Bo with visitors from Bo present to explain their lives and the local member of parliament present to hear about it..."

Attitudes of mutual respect and cooperation replace long-held racist, patronising and other negative perspectives in the North and subservience in the South. In Frederikstad (Norway), we were informed how their partners in the town of Patzun (Guatemala) see their link with Norway. Their frequent contacts with the town-hall and schools in Frederikstad are seen by them as "closing the distance between the two countries". They have "friends in the North who care".

In Hull (United Kingdom), it is reportedthat the city’s link with Freetown has led to "...a gradual raising of awareness of Sierra Leonean and wider African culture, together with an associated erosion of any racism inherent in the community¼." In Canada, participants in FCM’s partnerships programme say that they now take a greater interest in international development and their own country’s role on the international scene. Several reported that they "read the paper differently, paying more attention to international issues". Mark Sheldrake, associate director of Solace Enterprises Ltd, writing in connection with the benefits in terms of personal development which technical assistance-oriented links bring to the North, commented:

__________

25 Cross-cultural attitudes are further discussed in Jane Knight's paper "North South Linking, a Northern Perspective", presented to the 1992 Berlin Conference on Local Initiatives for Sustainable Development.

26 The report of the London office of the Japan Local Government Centre refers.

"I have talked to a large number of ‘Northern beneficiaries’ of [such links] and I’ve not met anyone who has not appreciated the almost unique opportunities to broaden horizons and to develop a range of skills e.g. visioning, managing with scarce resources, creativity, etc."

Leaders in the South have made similar observations about linking’s impact on Northern communities. In the words of President Abdou Diouf of Senegal, people in the North who have been involved in linking with Africa ".....admit that they have regained belief in fundamental values which they had previously a tendency to lose sight of¼." The reciprocal value of the opportunities for new knowledge and broader perspectives that the Southern communities provide to their Northern partners must be recognised.

School links have proven particularly effective in development education not only with children but also indirectly with their parents. The coordinator of Amesbury (USA)’s link with Esabalu (Kenya) states that "the children (in Amesbury) have learnt to live with less than what is normally provided." Schools participate in many of the links we visited. Many schools are maintaining effective ties outside the formal framework of town-to-town links themselves. The Mayor of Entebbe, when seeking a link partner in the United Kingdom, gave first priority to setting up links between the schools before adding other elements to the link.

4.4 Characteristics of successful links

There are four characteristics of a link which, we find, are essential to a link’s ultimate success. They are commitment to the link partnership, community-wide participation in it, understanding on both sides and reciprocity.

Commitment: Communities involved in a successful link will have committed themselves, in terms of time and resources, to contribute as much as they can. Time is almost always provided on a volunteer or pro bono basis. In a few cases the time of the community’s link coordinator, in the North or the South, is provided for on a salaried basis.

As regards funding, the most sustainable and successful links have a track record of raising their link’s core contributions from within the community/municipality itself, through official or private channels. Typically, this is not easy. The challenge of raising start-up funds and then sustaining the flow of funds should not be underestimated. In all cases, the enthusiastic support of the media is an essential element.

Allocating public money from the town budget for use in the town’s link, calls for laws which permit thisand strong political will. The city of Angers, for example, allocates 0.5% of its annual

__________

27 Until recently there were a number of Northern countries which did not permit local government funds to be used overseas. The situation appears to have been changing, and most countries are now giving, or in the process of giving, their local administrations the requisite authority.

investment budget to its link with Bamako. Besancon (France) generates the core funding for its link through levying a modest add-on to water consumption charges. Collecting contributions from the public on the street, though shown to be highly successful in some cases, is a strenuous, yet highly participative, task. Boston (UK) raises all its core funding from the public. This is done through special events and street collections. The annual total raised in this way amounts to an average of three US dollars for each Boston inhabitant.

In some Northern countries, the central government will add to a town’s core contributions, often with a generous multiplier. In others, it will provide a tax-break on individual contributions. In many countries, additional resources are being obtained from international sources, such as the European Union and the World Bank, with the assistance of national associations of local governments. The significance of these external resources to fulfilling some of the link partners’ aims notwithstanding, we find that home-generated core funding, in cash and in kind, and the community commitment it demonstrates, is the essence of a successful and sustainable link.

The Southern partner’s contribution is typically a mix of cash and in-kind support, with the latter predominant. Where a link’s activities are directly boosting family incomes or meeting certain other basic needs of the family unit, the link may have set up a revolving fund in the Southern partner’s community to pay for the required inputs. The families take on an obligation to pay into the revolving fund on an instalment basis. The Boston/Jalchatra link described in Annex 1 provides an example of this approach.

Community-wide participation: The wider the participation, the more a link succeeds. Indeed, our finding closely correlates with our belief that good urban governance is indispensable for the social and economic advancement of cities and is thus a key strategic entry point in UNDP’s urban strategy. If a link is to reach its potential, the town or city’s schools, university, hospital, fire service, library, associations for the handicapped and other local institutions, as well as business and community groups, will all be involved in their town’s link. In each of the partnered towns, the community and its institutions will be represented on a management board or its equivalent. Parliamentarians generally take part too, as well as the town council. The mayor, while leaving the link’s management to others, is likely to be a strong supporter. The local press likewise.

In larger urban communities, it appears to us, the direct involvement of the people is best ensured through the city having a central link between the respective city halls together with subsidiary links - between schools, associations and such like. This is done in Angers and Bamako, for example, where more than sixty local institutions in these cities are involved in this way. Their success is attributed to the dynamics of the direct relationships built up between them - between, for instance, the Malian Association for the Blind and Angers’ Institut Monteclair, and the Community Health Centre of the Borough of Banconi and the Angers Centre de Puericulture.

Thus the roots of a successful link can be seen in its inclusiveness in each of the two partnered communities. The institutions involved, the leading actors and the way in which they handle their partnership vary from one link to another. Though they can evolve and change, as the link’s leaders gain from their experience of what works and what does not, by and large the opportunity will have been taken to maximise the link’s use of each community’s human resources .

Understanding: As with other development modalities, dialogue and the reaching of a good understanding between the parties take time. The communities have to build trust and respect for one another and then go forward, on the basis of equality, to develop a clear, unambiguous agenda together. This process is demanding, difficult - and vital. "Unless the agenda is jointly defined and carried out by our Southern partners, and based on a time frame that fits their development and institutional capacity, we are likely to make the same mistakes as the more conventional development assistance programmes" (Riccardo Triglia, Past President, IULA).

Reciprocity: At the start of our research, the importance to link success of reciprocity was a point altogether unanticipated. However we found that people who link successfully were placing reciprocity high on their agenda. Each side, it was said, has something to give and something to receive. Benefits should flow in both directions, bringing satisfaction to both sides.

Given the disparity in material wealth between the overwhelming majority of townspeople in the North as compared with virtually all Southern urban communities, it is understandable that at first sight an equitable relationship is not easily achieved. Indeed, in many cases, this has not happened. Professor Jossy Materu, when commenting on studies undertaken in Africa on North-South partnerships, noted that "....the disadvantaged position of the Southern partners has given them a feeling that they are not really partners, but rather aid recipients." Link partners have to overcome this difficulty. In the words of Michael Ndubiwa, Town Clerk of Bulawayo (Zimbabwe), linking "....should be an equitable partnership, and we will give what we have."

Thus reciprocity, while acknowledging the enormous imbalance in material wealth between partner towns, recognises how much the South can in fact do, tangibly, for its Northern partner quite apart from the substantial intangible benefits that can accrue. Typically, Southern partners make to their link’s development programmes, through revolving funds, the provision of labour and local materials, and such like.

There are numerous other ways through which the Southern partner is reciprocating. For example, the Uong Bi hospital in Vietnam trains doctors from its partner town of Pitea in Sweden in tropical medicine. Some Southern towns meet all in-country costs of their Northern visitors. A young people’s delegation from Mutare, when visiting the Netherlands, volunteered to paint the underside of a new canal bridge in their partner city of Haarlem, coming up with a design that evokes the spirit of partnership between the two communities. Michael Shuman, in his book "Towards a Global Village", cites the example of Bulawayo which helped its partner, Kirklees (UK), to redesign its programme for youth employment on the basis of Bulawayo’s experience in this regard. Sanankoroba (Mali) made a cash donation to its Canadian partner at the time of the 1998 power outage and emergency in the province of Quebec.

__________

28 A photograph of the bridge at Haarlem appears immediately after page 43.

Annex 1 describes five of the successful links we have visited. One is at the city level , two at town level and two at the level of a town in the North and a rural district in the South.

4.5 Unsuccessful links

__________

29 The Toronto Globe & Mail account of Sanankoroba's donation to its Northern partner, is in Annex 3.

Many links have not done well in terms of their impact on poverty reduction. While some have not reached their potential and their results have been marginal, others have altogether failed. As with traditional development assistance, links are prone to mistakes too. Although linking, as compared with other local level cooperation programmes has certain comparative advantages, the inherent difficulties of language, culture and long-distance communication can make the process anything other than straightforward. Linking for development is a complex, difficult, time-consuming and, at times, daunting undertaking. A bad link can cause harm to the people who were intended to benefit from it. As a minimum, it leads to personal disappointment and disillusionment with the notion of town partnerships. Worse, it may damage relationships and attitudes, and reinforce stereotyped views of other cultures, North and South.

The most common reason for a link’s lack of success is its failure to meet the criteria we have outlined in the previous section (4.4). It can happen easily, especially when the Northern partner is in too much of a hurry or the Southern partner’s expectations have run ahead of themselves. Disappointment and a decline of the partnership ensue. The following quote typifies the sort of trap a Northerner can run into:

"White man is a fish who comes out of the river to leave offerings and to return to the water as fast as he has arrived."

(An African proverb)

Where paternalism is present, a spirit of partnership and mutuality cannot function. The success and sustainability of the link are seriously prejudiced, as with other forms of development when a donor dominates the dialogue. As a participant at the Africities Meeting held in Abidjan in January 1998 puts it, "¼Northern partners always wanted to tell (us) what to do and (did) not listen to (our) ideas and suggestions on how to solve local problems". This is echoed by Aggrey Kawonga, in his study on links between Malawi and the United Kingdom, where he notes that ".....the partners from the North behave more as consultants......" With better understanding in the North of the needs of the South, and assessment of what the South can do for the North in reciprocating, paternalism can be eliminated.

Links also fail where there is a mistaken assumption that all the expertise needed to make a success of a development project is already present in one or other of the partner communities. Jane Knight, in her paper on linking for the 1992 Berlin Conference on Local Initiatives for Sustainable Development, comments:

__________

30 A cautionary tabulation of the reasons for a link going sour is to be found in Jane Knight's paper on "North-South linking" to the 1992 Berlin Conference.

31 1994 Study, under the World Bank's Municipal Development Programme for sub-Saharan Africa, on technical cooperation links between the United Kingdom and Malawi

"Many [Northern link partners] see themselves walking into the aid business with none of the knowledge which has built up in NGO circles over the years, so there is a danger if guidance is not sought, of their taking part in very amateurish aid efforts."

Many, if not most, community-based projects are likely to require some additional technical support. This can be provided by a NGO familiar with the town or knowledgeable about the sector concerned. At the level of city hall, likewise, link projects will often need to draw on wider experiences - especially lessons learned in comparable developing countries - than exist within the partners’ own administrations. The Lille (France)/Hue (Vietnam) link, for example, has secured the services of UNESCO experts to assist with its efforts to restore Vietnam’s former capital.

Failure of a link can stem from a lack of political will on the part of the respective city leaders or from the concentration of the link’s management in the hands of a single elected local leader or senior official. Though city leaders’ political support is significant in making a link a success, account must be taken of the risk of discontinuity when they leave office. Political will at the national level too can also be insufficient to provide an enabling legislative environment in which links can function.

Just as there are links which have altogether failed, there are also those which have failed to reach their potential. A major factor bearing on a link’s prospect for reaching its potential is the view taken by the partners as to the intended inclusiveness of the link. For example, although the link may be building a bridge of understanding and cooperation between city halls, less may have been done to enable local institutions and the community at large to participate and benefit too. Accordingly, while a link may be successful inside the municipal administrations, it may have overlooked the opportunity to widen in scope to encompass the communities the local authorities serve. The opportunity to realise the full potential of the link is thus denied.

We believe that errors in going about linking are occurring mainly as a result of the difficulty which many linked towns, especially in the South, have had in gaining ready access to knowledge and information on what works and what does not. Unlike development agencies and NGOs, there has been little or no opportunity for most town halls to exchange views on linking and find out about linking’s best practices. In this respect, community leaders in the South have been severely handicapped. We believe that an unbiased guide, embodying the experiences and perspectives of South and North alike, and describing and discussing bad as well as good case histories, would significantly enhance link success.

4.6 Cost-effectiveness

Although the cost-benefits of linking may require more detailed research, our tentative conclusion is that successful links in terms of poverty reduction in developing country communities can be cost-effective. At the local authority level, the costs of experts and project management which are typically incurred in traditional development cooperation, can be much reduced in links through their relatively unbureaucratic approach For example, the Town Clerk of Kampala (Uganda) reports that the cost of one major component of his city’s link programme with Kirklees (UK) has cost only a fifth of what a comparable project had earlier cost under a traditionally funding and management modality. He adds that the results of the project under the link, with its direct "people-to-people" approach, were better. Swedish city links with the Baltic States have similar experiences. SIDA reports that "....the most important indicator [of its linking programme] is that the recipients in general have emphasised how the twinning programmes have been extremely well implemented and cost-effective, and the Swedish taxpayers’ money has been well used."

Two other factors contribute to linking’s capacity for cost-effectiveness. First, there is the spirit of volunteerism. Virtually all of the effort which most link partners put into their links is contributed on a pro bono basis. Some links report that there are no overheads being charged to the link, the town hall or other organisers of the link opting to bear phone calls, postage and other such support costs themselves. Where a link is managed from city hall, staff-time is typically being earmarked for this purpose. If the link is run by a community-based organisation, it is done so on a volunteer basis. In the latter case, visits by the Northern community to their Southern partners may be funded by the individuals themselves.

Where technical support is required from a Northern partner, then may limit the chargeable cost of the expertise provided to travel expenses only, the cost of the specialist’s time being absorbed at the Northern end, within that person’s institution. Where fees are charged, it is our understanding that they are usually considerably less than if a third party had been contracted. Local expertise, where not available within the Southern partner community, may be sought from a NGO, for which local rates are paid. Where construction work is involved, such as in the building of schools and clinics, it is common for the community itself to provide the basic labour. Sometimes this extends to the community also contributing whatever materials are available on the spot.

Secondly, since decisions are being taken at the local level, by the link partners themselves between the respective councils or, in the case of community groups between them and together with the local (Southern) development committee (or similar), they can be reached rather easily.

Thus, we incline to the view that links have an inherent potential cost-effectiveness in terms of their delivery of benefits, on account of the direct and short channels of communication between the partners. Such cost-effectiveness can be further enhanced in those links where a considerable of time and effort is contributed voluntarily.

__________

32 The example of the Jalchatra (Bangladesh) link with Boston (UK) is persuasive in terms of its cost-effectiveness. The results, summarised in Annex 1, are being achieved at an annual cost to the link of US$40,000. This corresponds to less than US$1 per Jalchatra inhabitant per year.

4.7 Number of links

The number of links between North and South is, we believe, small. The picture we present here indicates that a substantial scaling-up quantitatively is necessary if linking is to be successfully mainstreamed into development and is to have an impact at the national level..

Today the total number of official city-to-city links of all types worldwide is very roughly estimated at being somewhere between 15,000 and 20,000. The actual total is unknown because there is no single, comprehensive data-base. Moreover, it is difficult at present for data-bases to identify, on the one hand, those links which have become inactive or lapsed and, on the other, links which exist but have yet to be discovered. Nevertheless, there are the data-bases at the Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR) and UTO, and the national data-bases such as those of the UK’s Local Government International Bureau (LGIB) and Holland’s Association of Netherlands Municipalities (VNG) which provide much relevant information.

The great majority of links are between one Northern city and another Northern city. The number of links between North and South is small as compared with the worldwide total. In only a few Northern countries, France and Holland in particular, can North-South linking be said to be quite commonplace. The data-bases we have reviewed suggest the number of North-South city partnerships can be estimated at between 2,000 and 3,000, to which should be added links set up in the past few years between Western Europe and communities in Eastern Europe and the CIS.

Our estimate covers links having a variety of objectives – development, awareness-raising, solidarity, friendship and others . The number of the above North-South links presently concerned with development - at least as one of the link partners’ objectives - is, we believe, less than 2,000. Thus, when viewed from the viewpoint of linking’s potential worldwide, the number of links today which are having an impact on poverty is minute. The number impacting on North-South cross-cultural understanding, while marginally greater, is still exceedingly small.

By way of illustration of the current linking situation, we have selected four Northern countries and, in the table on page 31, analysed the distribution of their links in different parts of the world. Let us take from the table the example of the USA, where there are, we understand, altogether 12,000 towns and townships. Sister Cities International data indicates that only 2,000 towns, that is one-sixth of the total townships, have links of one kind or another. Moreover, only 649 of these links are with the South. Furthermore, it is estimated that less than half of these North-South links have a poverty eradication and sustainable development component. The situation is believed to be generally similar in most of the other Northern countries. In the case of Denmark, for example, the table shows that 2% of the 700 links recorded in the UTO data-base as being with Southern partners.

Looked at from a Southern perspective, the picture today is a frustrating one. There is a massive imbalance between the interest of Southern communities to establish links with the North as compared with the number of Northern communities who are actively seeking partners in the South. UTO reports that it receives at least fifty requests from the South for Northern partners for every one request coming from the North. UKOWLA (United Kingdom) has similar experience. For every new link established each year, UKOWLA advises that there may be ten to twenty requests for which no British partner can be found.

It is not surprising then that, from a Southern overall viewpoint, linking’s impact is marginal. Although existing links can, and some do, make a difference within the partner communities themselves, too few towns are linked for there to be any significant effect at the national level. We attribute the situation principally to many Northern communities not as yet being sensitised to the opportunity linking presents for people in their communities. People need to know that a city link gives them a direct chance to play a part in alleviating poverty in the poorest regions of the planet while at the same time reaping the benefits, of greater awareness and understanding, their city’s involvement can bring.

Table: Analysis of links established by cities/towns in four sample developed countries with cities/towns in other countries

Cities/towns in USA Cities in Denmark Cities in Netherlands Cities in Australia

Number of American, Danish, Dutch and Australian city/ town links with cities/towns in other countries:

with Northern cities/towns -

in Europe (excl. Scandinavia) 563 149 336 40

in Scandinavia 68 506 13 -

in Japan 357 1 12 42

in Canada/USA 50 8 12 71

in Australia/New Zealand 70 1 1 38

Total: 1,108 1,108 374 191

with Eastern European and CIS cities/towns with Southern cities/towns - 243 37 287 2

in Asia: East Asia 117 5 15 13

South-East Asia 45 - 5 21

South Asia 17 1 18 -

Total: 179 6 38 34

in Africa 94 6 91 -

in Latin America 368 1 32 2

elsewhere 8 2 9 1

Total: 649 9 170 37

Total number of links in USA, Denmark, Netherlands and Australia with cities in other countries 2,000 711 841 230

Source of data: USA - Sister Cities International; Denmark and Australia: UTO; Holland - VNG

4.8 Institutional support for linking

Associations exist at national, regional and international levels, to support city-to-city cooperation and to inform central governments of the importance of town and city links in the field of community development. At the national level, there are some institutions which have built considerable capacity to assist linking through training, workshops and information and, in some cases, through their support for in-country clustering of towns having links. They have an important role in disseminating best practices. These include, for example, Cites Unies France, the Association of Netherlands Municipalities and the Federation of Canadian Municipalities. Some associations support all types of linking; others are working with town halls only on municipal capacity-building and governance issues. In the countries where adequate institutional support is available, linking has become more strongly developed.

A few Northern associations have published manuals on how to link with the South, albeit from a Northerner’s angle. However, in most countries, especially in the South, where the network of associations of local authorities and similar bodies is incomplete and lacking in capacity, a shortage of resources has constrained the associations’ effectiveness. Consequently, there has been little opportunity for people, particularly in the South, to sufficiently understand what linking is about, to prepare themselves properly for entering into links and to exchange experiences with other links in their same country. Considerable institutional strengthening will be required for such associations to play their role to the full in supporting linking.

Regionally too, support organisations exist such as the African Union of Local Authorities (AULA) and the Council of European Municipalities and Regions (CEMR) and which form part of the IULA network. Since its establishment in 1984, AULA’s commitment to promoting linking has, despite its budgetary constraints, contributed to the growth of linking between Africa and the North. It should be noted, however, that for these organisations, support for linking is only one of their several activities. In CEMR’s case. its assistance is mainly provided to twinning links within the

__________

33 Kenya One World Linking Forum (K-OWL), the USA's Sister Cities International (SCI), the United Kingdom One World Linking Association (UKOWLA) and Norway's Vennskap Nord/Sor are examples of associations which, while existing outside the framework of national associations of local authorities, have an overall focus on linking, and thus a critical role to play in linking's eventual mainstreaming.

European Union and within Greater Europe. In addition, there are regional programmes such as the Municipal Development Programme for sub-Saharan Africa (MDP)which are in a position to support linking as a part of their initiatives to strengthen the capacity of local authorities, as well as the Bulawayo-based African Community Development Initiative (ACDI) and the SADC Regional Information Centre in Harare..

__________

34 Linking - or decentralised cooperation as it is termed in this instance - is a component of the Municipal Development Programme for sub-Saharan Africa, which represents a partnership between the World Bank, donors and African practitioners and politicians

At the global level there are a number of long established institutions having mandates encompassing support for linking. Ten of these institutions, in recognition of the value of having an umbrella association enabling them to present common views, met at Habitat II in 1996 to establish a mechanism, known as the World Associations of Cities and Local Authorities Coordination (WACLAC), for consulting and coordinating between them their policy voice on the world stage. Among the global institutions the three which are most concerned with linking are IULA, METROPOLIS and UTO.

IULA has the mandate to strengthen local government throughout the world. Its members are the more than one hundred national associations of local authorities.^. Through its Platform for Capacity and Institution Building (CIB), IULA supports municipal international cooperation (viz. linking) by seeking to promote best practices and facilitating the access of link partners to sources of external funding.

METROPOLIS promotes linking between its member cities, currently approaching one hundred. A Metropolis member is either a city with a population of at least one million or a country’s capital. METROPOLIS focuses on technical exchanges and provides funding to support them.

Founded in 1957, UTO was set up specifically to promote twinning between towns. Today UTO promotes all forms of linking. Through its network of national affiliates as well as its member towns, UTO supplies information and advice to help would-be partner towns to form links and thereafter to help the partners sustain their links.

These global organisations are complemented, among others, by the Commonwelath Local Government Forum (CLGF) and Towns and Development (T&D). CLGF, a body recognised by the Heads of Government of the British Commonwealth and established in 1995, seeks to encourage local-level democracy, the exchange of experience and the strengthening of local capacity. It has initiated a Commonwealth Local Government Good Practice Scheme, making grants to North-South city links. These grants are principally in support of link activities which improve the delivery of local services, particularly to the poor and disadvantaged. T&D, which grew out of the UNESCO-sponsored 1983 Conference on "Towns and Development Cooperation" is now an IULA associated organisation comprising NGOs, local governments and associations of local government. T&D has been playing a prominent role in raising awareness of linking, through its publications as well as through its initiatives in organising landmark conferences on the subject, such as the 1990 Bulawayo Conference.

__________

35 The current members of WACLAC and their coordinates are denoted on Annex 5.

36 Approximately 200 individual local authorities are also members of IULA.

The above organisations have recently been complemented by an informal dialogue network known as the World Alliance of Cities Against Poverty (WACAP). Established by city mayors as a contribution of cities from all continents to the International Decade for the Eradication of Poverty, and with support from UNDP, WACAP seeks to provide a network for anti-poverty action through member exchanges of information and views.

4.9 Viewpoint of governments

During the course of our work, there were opportunities to meet with central governments. Although it has to be borne in mind that our sample was small, from the persons we met we understood that attitudes at the national level are favorable towards linking. In terms of development activities, linking is seen not only as a modality for development cooperation but also a natural complement to Government moves to decentralise.

In the Southern countries visited, it would appear that governments are seeking to encourage linking, and at the same time not to control or impede its progress. The Malian Government, for example, is keen to increase the number of its urban centres having links, notwithstanding that the country already has more links than other African nations. Ousmane Sy, Special Advisor to the President on decentralisation policy, sees linking as an effective way of encouraging decentralisation, the more so if linking develops in a way that enables the latent potential of each partnership to be exploited to the full. In Vietnam, where the number of links is presently less than twenty, Government has a structure in place to facilitate the start-up of more links with the North.

__________

37 The Conference launched the Bulawayo Appeal, which called for new, mutually beneficial relationships between North and South. The Appeal gave recogntion to the contribution that the South can make to the North, at least in terms of new perspectives on development and lifestyles. The Appeal is reproduced in full in Peter Batty and Musa Njiru's book "Safari".

"Development will not be sustainable unless it originates from the concept of local development..........(and is) based on the efforts of the local population who respect priorities that they themselves define."

H.E. Mr. Abdou Diouf, President of the Republic of Senegal, 1994

Though the sample of central governments visited in the North was also small, a positive attitude there too was observed among the officials met, towards the concept of linking and, as a senior representative of the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) puts it, "....creating alliances between partners". Sweden is reportedly changing its policy so as to favour supporting developing countries’ activities through such alliances. The European Union’s strong interest in linking is evidenced by the substantial resources being allocated to its Decentralised Cooperation Programme, Asia-Urbs, TACIS City Twinning and other initiatives aimed at building partnerships to undertake community projects and strengthen town hall capacity to deliver essential services.

At the local level of government, we believe that a comment from the South, again from Mali, of the Government’s seniormost town official, the chef d’arrondissement, exemplifies positive Southern attitudes towards linking. As chairman of Mourdiah’s development committee and a member of the Mourdiah/Hennebont link committee, Mr. Ousmane Traore compares the difference between Mourdiah and the neighbouring town of Guire, which does not have a link. Neither community, he perceives, has received help from traditional donors. "In Guire, community spirit is at a low ebb. There is a feeling of hopelessness. In Mourdiah people’s lives are already being changed [by the seven year old link with Hennebont] and a sense of hope in the future has returned. In Mourdiah, night has become day."

5. THE CHALLENGE
"The only thing necessary for
the triumph of evil
is for good men
to do nothing."

Edmund Burke, quoted by Kofi Annan,
United Nations Secretary-General
at the 1997 Mayors’ Colloquium,
United Nations, New York

Linking has evolved from its origins as a modality for confidence-building between European towns into a global phenomenon encompassing friendship, solidarity, culture, awareness-building, international understanding, humanitarian assistance, sustainable development and, in recent years, good governance. It has moved a long way from traditional twinning into many areas of development cooperation.

Links that observe "best practices" are a reflection of modern thinking towards development "¼away from traditional and paternalistic support schemes towards a new system, based on a contractualist philosophy, and favouring the participation of numerous government and civil society players, as well as the responsibilisation, autonomy, self-esteem and citizenship-awareness of beneficiaries."

Nowadays links with the foregoing elements criss-cross the planet, between North and South, and North and the Eastern countries in transition. Some links have become ambitious in pursuit of their goal of reducing poverty and building local capacity in their Southern partner communities. Bonds have been formed that make the partnerships likely to continue for the foreseeable future. Regrettably, some other links have altogether failed. Many have a mixed record and remain on the margin of effectiveness for lack of awareness of what works and what does not.

The challenge is to bring linking into the development mainstream and, without changing its underlying nature, to enhance its effectiveness. If linking is to play a significant part in development and contribute to greater global awareness, it will be necessary for the number of links to increase substantially. Furthermore, link performance in general has to come closer to matching the results of today’s most successful links. If these steps are achieved, linking would move from the margin to the mainstream of development. Since our review has not turned up any evidence to suggest that the most successful links cannot be replicated, we believe the challenge can be met.

__________

38 Ms Elza Chambel, Regional Commissioner for the Fight Against Poverty, Government of Portugal, at the First Forum of the World Alliance of Cities Against Poverty held in October 1998 in Lyon, France.

We believe that three initiatives are necessary if the challenge is to be met: the popularising of linking, encouraging it to move in a direction that meets the complementary needs of South and North; second, the spread of information on linking’s best practices; and, thirdly, the dovetailing of growing donor interest in channelling more of their resources through links with the need for links to retain their independence.

First, the publicising and popularising of linking and its virtues is a prerequisite if city leaders, North and South, are to accord sufficient priority to recommending linking to their community. Where scepticism prevails, it needs to be dispelled. Whether at the level of city hall, local institutions or community groups, decision-makers need to be in a position to persuade others that a link brings benefits to its Northern and Southern partners alike. This is particularly important in the North, in view of the imbalance between the demand from the South for partnership links with communities in the North and the total number of existing North/South links.

Local authorities and community groups need also to be themselves persuaded that narrow-based partnerships – such as those between town halls exclusively for the purpose of technical cooperation – constrain partnered towns from enjoying the benefits that derive from community-wide participation. Narrowly-focussed links cannot, by definition, achieve the full potential that an inclusive city link offers. The support of the local media is critical to a link’s fund raising efforts.

At the level of central governments and international organisations, as well as international NGOs, a widespread understanding of linking’s potential will build a favourable climate for creating new links. Government support, North and South, is essential to linking’s successful mainstreaming.

The shortage of declared interested partner towns in the OECD countries is a major problem which will have tobe overcome if linking is to be successfully mainstreamed. The experiences of those towns who are already obtaining good results from their link, and the information they can share about its impact on their community, are needed by those communities which do not yet have a North-South link. Since linking competes with other priorities for city hall resources and local leaders’ time, the arguments in its favour have to be well understood and appreciated.

Second, the dissemination of "best practices", among existing as well as new links, will place link practitioners in a better position for achieving the potential and sustainability of their link. A guide to linking, written from the joint perspective of South and North, would provide a point of departure for seminars and workshops on the subject. A freer, broader exchange of information on best practices, drawing on the facilities of the Internet, as well as hard copy and video, could assist those who link, or want to link, to learn from the successes as well as the past mistakes of others.

Third, we see it as necessary to dovetail the mounting interest on the part of donors to channel aid funds through city halls and local institutions, with the need for links to retain the characteristics which have made the best of links so successful. The recent trend is for the major part of funding for today’s newest links to come from the OECD donor group. This trend might appear to some to be in contradiction with the importance placed by the most successful links on generating their core funding themselves. In this seeming contradiction, however, we see the opportunity for a convergence of community and donor interests, where the concerns of both parties can be met - the first to maintain linking’s proven best practices, the second for donors to channel their funds through new mechanisms which they find to be effective.

City halls, North and South, together with the communities they serve, would continue to set the link agenda together. They themselves would also raise the core funding needed for their link’s development activities, in line with current best practice. At the same time, we anticipate that central governments will become increasingly interested in supplementing the core funds, perhaps with a multiplier as presently occurs in France and the Netherlands, for example. Donor governments could attach conditions which, as in the case of the abovementioned countries, would be strict on accountability while being quite liberal in terms of the use to which the funds are put.

6. A POSSIBLE ROLE FOR UNDP
"The General Assembly
...invites the Secretary-General
..to study...the means by which the United Nations
and its specialised agencies
can contribute effectively
to the development of international cooperation
between municipalities."

Resolution 2861 (extract) of the UN General Assembly, 20 December 1971

We see the potential for linking to play a significant part both in reducing poverty and fostering greater understanding among nations. Likewise, we believe there is a role for UNDP to help build on what already exists and foster the growth of linking between towns, quantitatively and qualitatively,

This section sets out a number of possibilities to be explored for UNDP action at the outset of the new millennium. These proposals seek not to control linking but to encourage it. Comments and suggestions regarding them will be warmly welcomed.

6.1 Grounds for UNDP support for linking

"Today’s world has the capacity to fight poverty, and the means to do so." Linking could become a widely-used, additional and effective weapon in this fight, provided it joins the mainstream of international cooperation and development.

However, there is much that will have to be done if, first of all, the failures in so many links today are to be avoided in the future and second, if mayors and other community leaders are to be convinced that linking is a worthwhile endeavour.

Many people met by UNDP said they see the strength of linking as being in its direct "people-to-people" approach to addressing needs and solving problems. This characteristic makes linking not only an effective modality for local community and institutional development but also a promising vehicle for building more bridges across the world’s ethnic, religious, cultural and material divides. Linking is one of the ways that helps individuals and communities to think globally, grow in awareness and better grasp the issues that are inhibiting equitable development and peace.

__________

39 Extract from Opening Address of Thierry Lemaresquier, Director of the Social Development and Poverty Elimination, UNDP at the First Forum of the World Alliance of Cities Against Poverty, Lyon (France), October 1998.

Accordingly, UNDP is interested to pursue, in collaboration with interested bilateral and multilateral donor colleagues, ways and means to support the growth of linking and help ensure that the challenges of linking are met.

On the following pages we put forward a number of tentative possibilities to explore UNDP’s cooperation through our network of country offices and in line with our mandate and priorities. Further development of these possibilities would be carried out in consultation with Northern and Southern governments.

The series of UN Conferences in the 1990's have highlighted the importance of partnerships at all levels. The 21st Century may indeed become the century of partnerships. There are various institutions representing cities at the global, regional and national levels that could potentially become UNDP partners in this endeavour. A few illustrative examples are the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA) at the global level, the Council of European Municipalities (CEMR) at the regional level and Sister Cities International (SCI) at the national level. Each organisation is actively promoting linking. There could be close collaboration with programmes such as the World Bank’s Municipal Development Programme for sub-Saharan Africa. No new institution or funding body is contemplated. Nor would we wish to see linking "controlled" in any way since a strength of linking is that the partners are free to develop their partnership as they, the communities and their leaders, find best. A link’s dynamism, initiative and resourcefulness are qualities not to be constrained, but to be safeguarded.

6.2 Possible follow-up actions to be explored

Within existing limitations and pending further reviews, the following actions could be explored:

__________

40 UNDP country offices would provide national focal points with briefs on other UN programmes, as well as those of bilaterals and multilaterals, through which links might be able to access resources for their development activities in the Southern partner community.

1.Informing and sensitising cities and towns about linking’s benefits. City and community leaders would need to have sufficient information to enable them to assess the potential benefits of entering into a link partnership and to decide whether they wish to link. In order to bring this about, there is a potential need for a strategic public relations/awareness-raising campaign. Supported by UNDP and bilateral partners and others, the campaign – with its attendant media coverage – would have to be made largely in the North. Its scope would not restrict itself to cities presently without links but also encompass communities with existing links too, in order to provide them with information that could facilitate their work in raising public awareness locally. Allied to the campaign would be a sampling of Northern towns to ascertain their perceptions towards linking and its benefits. Recognising the prevailing imbalance between Southern towns seeking to link and Northern towns looking for partners (page 30), it will be critical that actions taken in the North to popularise linking precede dissemination - and hence raising expectations - in the South;

In the North, UNDP would support the foregoing through assistance to established cities’ associations and their respective members at the regional and national levels;

In the South, UNDP would work with its partners in central Government to assist associations of local governments, or other existing institutions, to take on the role of national focal points. These points of contact, over and above their role in sensitising towns about linking’s benefits, would also provide help and advice in finding a partner and setting up a link. Bearing in mind that UNDP does not seek to build its own capacity or any other new institutional capacity to directly support link partners, it is proposed that the initial effort in helping to set up links would be conducted in collaboration with Southern regional institutions and directed towards assisting Southern towns and districts which are the most disadvantaged;

2.Facilitating the search for link partners, so that city and community leaders, North and South, would have access to a world-wide choice of partners, covering all countries. UNDP in cooperation with cities’ associations and other partners would support enhanced knowledge management and information dissemination about linking. One possibility to be explored is the development of a central database of links. This database, connected to other databases and accessible on the Internet, would provide information on North and South communities seeking a link partner, as well as ongoing links. It would also give the coordinates of the national focal points in any given country as well as names and contact addresses of potential partners.

3.Facilitating equitable link partnerships, by working with international organisations and others to produce a global guide on how to start, manage and evaluate a link. The guide, to be published in the official working languages of the United Nations and, to the extent possible, popular regional languages too, would aim to reinforce networking among links, new and old, with the aim of promoting the quantitative and qualitative growth of linking.

The guide would include, inter alia, chapters on the involvement of city hall and civil society, awareness-raising, development education, equality and reciprocity, paternalism, policy and agenda-setting, fund-raising, institutional frameworks, coordination, accountability and evaluation. It would illustrate a variety of model forms of agreement/memoranda of understanding. The outcome of the guide should be a more systematic approach being taken by partners towards developing and managing their link according to their needs;

In addition, UNDP country offices would provide information and suggestions to the national focal points on sources of technical expertise which could support a link’s development activities, and information on other programmes as well as such other advice as may be sought;

4.Promoting networking, in order to encourage exchanges of experiences and views, and to accelerate the dissemination of knowledge of linking, its potential and its best practices. The underlying objective would be to enhance the quality of existing links, fostering their sustainability, while at the same time providing a wealth of information to those planning to link. In-country networking would be through in-country clustering of link towns and local-level forums, supplemented by E-mail and Internet. There would also be networking, largely using electronic means, between countries of the same region, and also North/South and South/South. UNDP’s activities would be undertaken through existing bodies, including UNDP’s Unit for Technical Cooperation Among Developing Countries (TCDC), among others;

5.Strengthening Southern capacity to support links, so that all concerned parties in the South would have access to the latest information and advice on linking. Through international and regional associations, as well as through the UNDP country offices. UNDP would aim at building the capacity of the national focal points to (i) help towns by providing training, seminars, visits and publications so that the towns can prepare for, and enter into, successful North-South partnerships; (ii) disseminate knowledge of best practices and other experiences and provide them with such other information and advice they may seek; and (iii) widely publicise the support services they, the national focal points, would provide;

In addition, UNDP would eventually support the initiatives of Southern regional institutions to conduct participative research into the effects of linking on communities in their region, and to disseminate the results of their research into the linking networks;

Through close collaboration with the relevant UN agencies, and national and international NGOs, UNDP would promote the accessing of technical support for filling gaps in the know-how needed to implement the development activities of a link. Advice would be available on the various options for link partners to contract with UN agencies, bilateral agencies, NGOs and others;

Support would be given for seminars or national conferences as appropriate, for Government leaders, politicians, senior officials and other representatives of civil society, to enhance their knowledge of linking and the contribution it can make to meeting a country’s overall development goals. Assistance would also be provided to central Government, as may be requested, (i) to formulate a national policy on linking, bringing it within the legal competence of local authorities and community groups to engage in international cooperation, where such is not presently the case. and (ii) to enhance information systems for monitoring links. Such assistance could be supplemented with support for regional meetings, organised by regional associations of cities, to sensitise Government leaders to the value of linking;

6.Giving recognition to links, and the contribution which links make to global understanding and peace, as well as to development. This contribution would be acknowledged by according each link whose local agenda essentially parallels the goals of the UN Charter, with recognition as a "United Nations Link". Such recognition would also be a way of acknowledging the considerable amount of time and resources too, which the individuals involved voluntarily put in to their community’s links;

UN General Assembly Resolution 2861 recognises that a link can be a valuable means of international cooperation and is a "natural complement to the cooperation of states and NGOs." We propose, therefore, that consideration is given to according accredited status to such links in a broadly similar manner to that presently being granted to qualifying NGOs. The links would be required to meet stringent criteria that would help to spread good practice. The according of accredited status to a North-South partnership would be an acknowledgment of the contribution which the two communities, and their leaders, are making to world peace and security.

We believe that the above possibilities might eventually take advantage of UNDP’s unique position of neutrality, in addition to drawing on UNDP’s network and diverse development experience around the globe, in partnership with various UN and non-UN partners. The recommended actions would enable communities in the North and South, more than ever before, to come face to face with one another and work together for mutual development, and for peace.

Annexes

1 EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL NORTH-SOUTH LINK PARTNERSHIPS

1. MOURDIAH/HENNEBONT PARTNERSHIP

Location and population:

Mourdiah Mali

300 kms north of Bamako

pop: 15,000 Hennebont France

600 kms west of Paris

pop: 15,000

Focus:

Mourdiah town and surrounding villages: development projects, principally in water, health and education according to the needs expressed by the communities and consistent with the policies of the Malian Government.

Hennebont: awareness -raising: exposure to another culture; fund-raising for development projects

Start: 1988 (formal agreement signed 1992)

Activities:

Mourdiah:

- water: construction of wells, improvement of existing wells, hygiene and clean water education;

- education: construction of schools, improvement of classrooms, establishment of a parents’ association; adult literacy

- health: training of primary health workers and traditional birth attendants, setting-up of a community pharmacy, equipping of a maternity unit; building a village dispensary; support for the establishment of a community health centre

- other: market-gardening, livestock-raising, grain storage, tree nursery, soap production, tailoring, community library, adult literacy in Bambara (local language), support for youth group activities.

Hennebont: year-round fund-raising events - attic sales, concerts, lotto, dinners, exhibitions and sale of Malian handicrafts, soliciting regular contributions by banker’s order; public debates; awareness campaigns in the schools, African film festival; exhibition and sale of Malian handicrafts; monthly meetings of the Hennebont Jumelage Committee; participation in development seminars, twice yearly visits of Hennebont volunteers for follow-up of projects.

Operational arrangements:

Mourdiah: Local Committee for Development, chaired by the Chef d'Arrondissement and comprising government personnel, and

Jumelage Committee, comprising members elected by the different villages, and GRAD, a Malian NGO - for water projects, and

Mourdiah Development Association, comprising Mourdians living in Bamako.

Hennebont: Hennebont Town Hall; Hennebont Jumelage Committee, comprising volunteers; individual donors.

Contributions:

Mourdiah: Community participation through providing their own labour and materials; exceptionally, financial support from local contributors.

Hennebont: Approximately US$7,000 annually from the community through fund-raising events and individuals contributing 1 French Franc (17 US cents) a day through bank standing order. Additional funding from official sources: US$10,000 annually from the Town Hall, US$50,000 a year (for 1993-95) from the regional authorities and funds from the Ministry of Development Cooperation - through Cites Unies, matching the total amount raised locally.

The projects are financed through interest-free loans, with the loan repayments being reinvested in new projects.

All the funds raised are used for the projects. The Hennebont Jumelage Committee members finance themselves the expenses of their visits to Mourdiah.

Results to date:

Mourdiah:

- water: 9 new wells; improvement in the lives of the women, now that they have access to clean drinking water, better hygiene and better health; well facilities for livestock-raising and market-gardening.

- education: schools built and improved; enrolment of girls increased from 5% to 35%. Improvement of classroom conditions - the schools' cooperative;

- health: easier access to health care (with the community pharmacy providing the basic essential medicines);

- agriculture, livestock and other: men's associations, women's associations and youth associations set up for managing their various activities; the dynamism of the youth associations has helped to reduce the exodus from the rural areas.

Hennebont: awareness-raised about third world development; reflection on development issues; cultural exchanges; human enrichment from the relationships among the Hennebont group itself and also through Hennebont's contacts with African civilisation.

Lessons learned:Hennebont: Regret at not having statistics on the impact of the partnership on the population.

The jumelage must evaluate itself as it proceeds, so that the partners can discuss and understand the perspectives and differences of each.

2. JALCHATRA/BOSTON PARTNERSHIP

Location and population:

Jalchatra

Bangladesh

300 kms north of Dhaka

pop: 60,000 Boston

United Kingdom

150 kms north of London

pop: 25,000

Focus: Jalchatra and neighbouring villages: integrated human development, with emphasis on health, formal and non-formal education, income-generation and community participation. Education is the backbone.

Boston: awareness-raising; community spirit

Start: 1975

Activities:

Jalchatra: water supply for safe drinking water and irrigation; primary health clinics, maternity hospital; sanitation; fish-farming; primary and secondary education; skills training; computer skills; weaving in traditional designs and exporting the products to the United Kingdom and elsewhere; crop diversification; reafforestation; small-holdings for the destitute; community participation in development; legal aid; education on civil liberties and human rights; training courses in tribal music, HIV/Aids, etc.

Boston: year-round fund-raising events; awareness raising campaigns through the media and in the schools.

Operational Jalchatra: Community-led overall management committee in consultation with arrangements:local authority and member of parliament. Sub-committees include a development committee

Boston: Community-led committee, in consultation with municipality and member of parliament.

Contributions:Jalchatra: community contributes to income-generating projects by borrowing from the partnership’s revolving fund to meet its share of the cost, and repaying the borrowings out of the extra income generated. It contributes to the health and education projects in kind, providing its labour either at a very low rate or free of charge and providing raw materials which are locally available. In addition, the community sends its Boston partners gifts of woven products, wood-carvings.

Boston: approx US$40,000 annually from the community (street collections, fund-raising events in which all Boston’s schools, colleges and churches participate). Additional funding from other sources in the community such as Boston Hospital, which funded the Jalchatra maternity hospital and its nursing staff.

Results to date:

Jalchatra: Health - clinics, staffed with nurses, now treating typhoid, cholera, enteritis, accidents, etc. Maternity hospital, with trained midwives, handling deliveries locally. Safe drinking water provided; fish-farming producing increased supply of protein.

__________

41 The Boston/Jalchatra link supports revolving funds for all income-generating and most other activities (e.g. construction of water-sealed toilets). The CUNA and Antegonish methods are used. Loans are made in kind such as for the purchase of pumps for shallow tube wells. Approximately 80% of the tubewell loans made to date have been repaid in full through four imnstalments. Unpaid loans are settled through the return of the pump which is then repaired and re-sold.

Education - 40 primary schools and two middle schools built and operated, with boarding provided for 200 boys and girls annually. Also a science school and a commercial school have been built and are operating; school-leavers are obtaining jobs without difficulty; and some students now gaining access to university.

Peace and justice: a justice and peace committee of the Parish Council established, on conflict resolution; success through the courts in retaining tribal lands.

Income-generation: crop earnings increased through diesel and hand-pump irrigation increasing rice crop to three a year, introduction of high-yielding varieties of rice, wheat, cassava; inter-cropping; women’s cooperatives formed for spinning, weaving and knitting.

Community actively participating in village meetings.

Boston: The community as a whole is aware of needs of people in Bangladesh and the role of the partnership in helping to change people’s lives. It is supportive of its link and contributes generously to it.

Impact:

Jalchatra: Health greatly improved, with dramatic reduction in infant mortality, likewise in maternal mortality; and average height of children much increased. Education - literacy rate risen from 4% for women and 24% for men to 75% overall,. Incomes substantially increased. Quality of life significantly enhanced, and with more choices available to the community. The Boston/Jalchatra partnership has changed the people’s lives.

Boston: The impact which the town has had on its partner community has had a galvanising effect not only in motivating the people of Boston to continue their support but also in building the community spirit in Boston itself.

Lessons learned:Boston: "Small is beautiful (Rome was not built in a day)..

"Let your partners et the pace; their lives are changing and they must be happy about it".

"Keep in touch.

"A regular flow of information, news and human interest stories are vital for sustaining interest and enthusiasm".

"Setbacks are a Fresh Challenge.

"In 1988 severe flooding washed away many of the things we have funded. We introduced rower pumps to stave off famine and they proved immensely popular with farmers and families".

"Encouraging proper pride.

"Exhibited by a young Garo extension worker discussing his problems confidently, with the American Head of the Rice Research Station near Dhaka".

3. JINJA/GUELPH PARTNERSHIP

Location and population:

Jinja

Uganda

70 kms east of Kampala

pop: 60,000 Guelph

Canada

90 kms west of Toronto

pop: 40,000

Focus:

Jinja: community development; governance; municipal management.

Guelph: awareness-raising; low-cost techniques for municipal operations.

Start:1992 (partnership agreement signed 1993)

Activities:

Jinja: renovating and revitalising community centres; strengthening of women’s groups and their capacity to empower through training; microprojects and the setting up of a revolving fund to meet start-up costs; community waste and composting programme; "greening" of the town through a tree nursery project; municipal strategic planning, skills training and upgrading of town-hall equipment.

In addition there are many parallel activities undertaken by Guelph community organisations, including the hospital, women’s association, schools and university directly, in collaboration with their counterparts in Jinja and in coordination with the respective town-halls.

Guelph: awareness-raising in the community through the media; fund-raising by the associated community organisations.

Operational arrangements:

Jinja: municipality-led. Managed in collaboration with Rotary and community groups.

Guelph: municipality-led. Managed in collaboration with Rotary, church groups and other community groups.

The partnership renews its commitment every three years, and sets objectives for that period. The latest review was November 1997.

Contributions (in cash or in kind)

Jinja: provided trades persons to train youth in construction, enabling youth to participate in building the community centre.

Provided technical support for organising and managing the women’s groups. Contributed office space for the women’s group umbrella organisation at the town hall.

Guelph: approx US$90,000 from the Federation of Canadian Municipalities spread over a period of three years, of which US$30,000 for projects and US$60,000 for training and travel, renewable by mutual agreement; contributions in kind (staff-time) from the municipality.

Approx US$15,000 raised to date from hospital, university, and other local organisations and community groups, plus contributions in kind of computers and other items, with a value of approximately US$10,000.

Results to date:

Jinja: One community centre revitalised, with management committee established; self-help programmes developed by the community centre’s members; intensive use of centre for recreational purposes (for seniors, and for television for youth in the evening) as well as for additional classrooms; the centre is also venue for meetings of the community’s recently established local council; user charges to defray the centre’s running costs. Two other community centres being completed, following the foregoing model.

100 women’s groups have formed an umbrella association (JIMWA) with the objectives of empowerment and skills training (note: the literacy rate for women in Jinja is 20%). The Association provides training in small-business development and other marketable skills, and to manage a revolving fund for income-generation purposes. In addition, Guelph has provided a market researcher to help groups to identify markets for existing products and to develop new products. Jinja municipality has provided JIMWA with an office in the town hall.

Composting projects run by community groups, to recycle Jinja’s organic waste.

Municipal staff trained in word-processing and accounting and related functions. In addition, training of trainers for self-sustainability. Schools have formed their own links as a result of the town-hall to town-hall partnership.

Guelph: High level of awareness of the link with Jinja and the importance of the town and community’s contributions to it.

Impact on the two communities:

Jinja: Greater respect of among politicians, community members, and administration; sharing resources and working together to solve community challenges; greater respect of each other’s problem-solving ability with limited resources.

Increased productivity of municipal administration.

Market sales station for plants is generating revenue to off-set operating cost of tree nursery.

Guelph: People proud of their link. Cultural understanding developed; appreciation of Southern family values; schools have their own links. Greater care taken to maintain older equipment and to do without marginal things

Lessons learned:

Jinja: community participation with the support of politicians and administration is needed to make the necessary improvements. Friendships developed will help gain a quicker understanding of each other, and will make changing an easier process. It is also very important the media covers the changes, in order to communicate this to the community at large.

Guelph: The city of Guelph can make a difference in Uganda if the right combination of political and local municipal staff are put together to take action. Accountability for projects and to see them through has given the Guelph community a sense of security that the funds raised will do what the city leadership said it would. Let the community know about the results and their impact.

4. MUTARE/HAARLEM PARTNERSHIP

Location and population:

Mutare

Zimbabwe

250 kms east of Harare

pop: 200,000 Haarlem

Netherlands

25 kms west of Amsterdam

pop: 150,000

Focus:

Mutare: community development - more specifically housing, education, health care, environmental policy and waste management.

Haarlem: awareness-raising; cultural exchange; dialogue on sustainable development.

Start: 1992

Activities:

Mutare: Housing project, waste management project, funds for pupils and students, Red Cross projects - e.g. clinic, school for disabled children, community centre -, Local Agenda 21 dialogue, youth exchange program, Internet Project Technical College, bicycle repair and hire workshop, sports accommodation and training of sports teachers, Zororai Old People’s Home, Bonda Orphanage. Twinnings between schools and hospitals.

Haarlem: Awareness and information campaigns; school project "A journey to Mutare", Dialogue with Local Agenda 21 Forum Mutare on sustainability in Haarlem, cultural exchanges, Mutare Homepage, Twinning Magazine, participation in annual multicultural festival.....

Operational arrangements:

Mutare: Combined community and council twinning committee; LA 21 Forum;

Mutare-Haarlem Housing Trust (consisting of representatives of council, NGOs and beneficiaries).

Haarlem: Haarlem-Mutare Foundation: NGO supported with council funding, in which municipality is represented. Close cooperation between Foundation and municipality in different projects, such as Local Agenda 21/sustainable development, housing project, etc.

Contributions:Mutare: contributions in kind to different projects - staff, offices, etc.

Financial contribution to revolving fund Mutare-Haarlem Housing Trust.

Haarlem: annual contribution of approximately US$50,000 to Mutare-Haarlem Foundation; total sum of approx. US$150,000 for Housing project (both municipal and private contributions); approx. US$200,000 for Red Cross projects; annual funding for various projects approx. US$50,000.

Additional funding from VNG (Netherlands Association of Municipalities) for technical assistance (both in Mutare and Haarlem - contribution to investments in projects e.g. housing project, equipment, etc.).

Results to date:

Mutare: realisation and implementation of waste management plan; start of housing scheme for approx. 300 families, clinics, home for the elderly, community centre, school for disabled children, founding of LA 21 forum (LA 21 process in Mutare and dialogue with Haarlem on sustainability in North-South perspective); Computer network Mutare Technical College and many more contributions to community based projects. In short, the people of Haarlem have contributed to the realisation of projects in Mutare, initiated by the people of Mutare and aiming at better living conditions for the people, especially in the so-called high density areas.

Haarlem: the twinning with Mutare has definitely contributed to the awareness of Haarlem’s citizens on North-South and sustainability issues. It also contributes to undermining existing views on Africa as a "lost continent". Showing the capabilities and creativity of the people of Mutare in their development process.

The input from experts from Mutare in Haarlem’s LA 21 process was extremely valuable, as it led to a whole different perspective on sustainability in Haarlem.

A very tangible result is the painting, made by artists from Mutare on a new bridge in Haarlem.

Impact:Mutare: the improvements to facilities such as housing, health care, waste management etc are entirely the merit of the people of Mutare; the twinning with and support from Haarlem, however, have often proven to work as a catalyst on projects and programmes initiated in Mutare. This in turn has led to better living conditions for the people in Mutare, specifically in the township of Sakubva.

Haarlem: the twinning relationship with Mutare is based on reciprocity. The dialogue and exchanges with people from Mutare have a great impact on individuals and organisations in Haarlem; through these contacts, policy matters are considered from a whole new angle. This goes especially for issues such as sustainability. In general, the twinning has contributed to the awareness of the world as a global village.

Lessons learned:

Haarlem: A twinning relationship between partner cities in the North and the South is not only a matter of municipalities. NGOs and individual citizens should also be involved to create and maintain a broad public support on both sides.

Reciprocity is a basic principle in the relationship. Given the differences in wealth and consumption patterns, reciprocity does not express itself on a material level, but is made visible through input of expertise on both sides and through dialogue.

The Haarlem/Mutare link is a participant in Holland’s "Local Agenda 21 Charters Programme"

5. BAMAKO/ANGERS PARTNERSHIP

Location and population:

Bamako

Mali

pop: 1,000,000 Angers

France

250 kms west of Paris

pop: 150,000

Focus:

Bamako, capital of Mali: priorities: health, education, social development, urban improvement and cultural exchange.

Angers: Solidarity with a city in the South; support the democratisation and decentralisation process; mobilisation of Angers society (individuals and associations).

Start: 1974

Activities:

Bamako:

- health: construction of six community centres; provision of medical equipment and medicines for Bamako hospitals; rehabilitation of the Institute for the Blind; construction of dining facilities for the Centre for the mentally handicapped; equipment for the Centre for the physically handicapped; training of Bamakois doctors at the Angers University Hospital.

- education: rehabilitation of six schools for young people; kindergartens; construction of learning/activity centres; 225 latrines installed in 43 schools

- urban improvement; clean up of one district, rehabilitation of a main traffic artery, tree-planting; providing and maintaining refuse collection vehicles; training of technical staff in Bamako’s departments of city services; furniture and equipment for city’s district offices.

- cultural development: construction of Maison du Partenariat for meetings, cultural events, backstopping link projects, training centre; lighting for the National Museum of Mali; publication of children’s books in French and Bambara, written and illustrated by Malians.

Angers:

- events to sensitise and educate young people about development (mobile exhibitions, "animations artisanales", meetings and exchanges of information with visiting Malians. Subventions for, and accompanying of students going to Bamako on training programmes. Mobilising support of Angers’ twinned towns in Europe (Pisa, Haarlem and Osnabruck) to participate in Angers’ projects with Bamako.

Operational arrangements:

Bamako: The Office of the Governor (Governor and supporting technical services); mayors of Bamako’s six districts; national jumelage committee; local jumelage committee; various associations; Office of Cooperation Francaise in Bamako; Association Francaise des Volontaires du Progres.

Angers: City hall; Office of International Cooperation; partner institutions (hospital, schools, associations for the handicapped); various associations.

Contributions:Bamako: In-kind support from the Governor’s service departments; labour provided by Malian enterprises; participation of associations.

Angers: approximately US$220,000 voted unanimously by the Council each year. US$18,000 a year from business enterprises in Angers. Additional funding from official sources: US$55,000 for a year for three years from the Region and US$55,000 a year for three years from the Ministry of Development Cooperation.

Results to date:Bamako:

- health: access to primary health care for a large number of people (est. 250,000); improvements to in standard of living for the handicapped; improved hygiene in the schools.

- education: better facilities for children not going to school (1,500 children a day are using the activity centres); more people’s participation in the affairs of their district; youth are now taking full charge of their youth associations and being recognised for it.

- urban improvement: improved skills of personnel in the services departments; strengthened capacity and better functioning of some of the services.

- culture: better knowledge; emergence of new artists.

Angers: Through sensitising the people of Angers towards the cultural diversity of Mali, the link has mobilised the population significantly in support. The needs of youth, keen to take part in humanitarian and development activities, is being met. The broad spectrum committee responsible for the link, plus the twenty-five local institutions with ‘sub-links’ amounts to a total of 200 persons directly involved in the link.

Link creates a bridge between North and South. It promotes interculturalism and combats racism. It builds citizenship and educates people in development issues. Link also rekindles fundamental human values of solidarity, fraternity and respect for the elderly.

Lessons learned: Three prerequisites for a successful link: willingness on the part of both partners; complementarity of the partner cities’ technical skills; takeover of the link’s outputs by the users. It is important to implement link projects in the local context.

Necessary to take cultural factors thoroughly into account.

2 EXAMPLES OF LINKING AGREEMENTS

TWINNING AGREEMENT
BETWEEN
MUTARE (ZIMBABWE)
AND
HAARLEM (THE NETHERLANDS)

The municipality of Mutare, represented by Mr. A. Mutore (Mayor) and the municipality of Haarlem, represented by Elizabeth M.A. Schmitz (Mayor)

whereas:

-international awareness of the situation amongst local population can be further developed;

-exchanges of knowledge leads to an enhancement of this knowledge;

-better understanding of the problems of a country in development will serve to increase the solidarity and support from the people of the city of Haarlem;

-in this way cooperation between both cities can be strengthened;

-both cities wish to develop the relationship between Mutare and Haarlem;

have reached agreement as follows:

1.Both parties will enter into cooperation comprising extensive exchange of information, experience and initiatives, in the socio-economic, cultural and administrative domains.

2.The city of Haarlem will try, as far as possible, to stimulate projects which contribute to an improvement of living conditions for the people of Mutare.

3.Both parties agree to mobilize expertise, both for the purposes of aid and education and in order to exchange experiences. Parties will concentrate their efforts towards a lively cultural exchange, to enhance mutual understanding and respect.

4.The exchange shall not be limited to official circles. Rather, it will at the same time promote relationships between social, political and cultural organizations in both twinning cities. Both parties will launch an information campaign in order to promote these relationships.

To implement this agreement both cities will make efforts to promote direct contacts between interested institutions, organizations and companies; both cities will support these contacts and the cooperation which results from it.

6.Both parties will contribute to the implementation of this agreement and to a maximum coordination of the activities related to the twinning.

7.Once a year an evaluation of the situation regarding the twinning relationship will take place; further measures to develop the twinning relationship will be agreed upon.

8.The duration of this agreement is indefinite; it can be terminated (in writing) at any time by either party.

The agreement can be altered or extended at any time with the consent of both parties.

This agreement will be drawn up in two original versions in both English and Dutch.

Mutare, September 1993

(signed: The Mayor of Mutare) (signed: the Mayor of Haarlem)

A. Mutore Elizabeth M.A. Schmitz

Agreement

between Hennebont and Mourdiah

Between:

Hennebont commune, represented by the Mayor, Deputy Mayor in charge of jumelage, Treasurer of the Jumelage Committee and President of the Hennebont Mourdiah Jumelage section;

Mourdiah arrondissement, represented by the Executive Head of the Arrondissement, President of the Mourdiah Development Committee;

Mourdiah Jumelage Committee, represented by its President and the Secretary for social relations;

and Mourdiah Development Association, represented by the President of the crisis group, the Vice-President and other members,

the following has been agreed:

Article 1: Mourdiah is comprised of the arrondissement, that is to say Mourdiah plus forty villages and Hennebont is comprised of the commune of Hennebont in France.

Article 2: The activities of the jumelage between Mourdiah and Hennebont are based on partnership and not aid, and are recorded in the development programmes approved by the linked towns. The means of financing the programme must be defined in a contract.

Article 4: All correspondence, files, and all official requests must be signed by the most competent authority in Mourdiah and Hennebont, that is the Executive Head of the arrondissement and the Mayor respectively.

Article 4: All correspondence which has not been signed by either one of the two authorities referred to in Article 3 is null and void.

Article 5: Projects must be initiated and sent to the competent authorities through the Mourdiah Jumelage Committee and the Hennebont Mourdiah section.

Article 6: In Mourdiah, all activities relating to Hennebont are undertaken exclusively by the Jumelage Committee which is itself a member of the Mourdiah Development Committee under the authority of the Executive Head of the Arrondissement.

Article 7: Funds for the projects specified in Article 2 by Hennebont commune in the framework of requests made by the Mourdiah Development Committee are subject to conditions duly approved by the Development Committee and signed by or on behalf of the Executive Head of the Arrondissement.

Article 8: The funds provided by Hennebont will be contributed for the purposes of financing projects in Mourdiah and must be paid into the Mourdiah Development Association's bank account. However, by agreement between Hennebont and the Mourdiah Development Committee, funds may be placed directly at the disposal of persons providing services.

Article 9: Matters relating to Mourdiah's relations with Roissy en Brie, and which concern the health sector exclusively, must be channelled through the Mourdiah/Roissy Association.

Article 10: For the time being, Mourdiah must handle its relations with Kronach through Hennebont.

Article 11: Correspondence between the Mourdiah Development Association, which is regarded as a partner in Mourdiah's development, and Hennebont must be channelled through the Mourdiah Development Committee.

However, given the geographical situation of the Mourdiah Development Association in relation to Mourdiah, Hennebont can submit directly to the Mourdiah Development Association the account of the Development Committee.

Article 12: This agreement has been formulated and approved by the undersigned and comes into effect in order to govern the relations between the different parties so as to sustain the understandings in terms of the Jumelage reached between Mourdiah and Hennebont.

Bamako 1994

Mourdiah Hennebont Mourdiah Development Association

(seal and signature) (seal and signature) (seal and signature)

3 Excerpt from the Toronto Globe & Mail

On one side of the Atlantic, the 1500 residents in the dairy-farming community of Sainte-Elisabeth, 100 kms north of Montreal, were huddled beside woodstoves and transistor radios, powerless in the face of the devastating ice storms. Half a world away, in the sand-swept farming village of Sanankoroba in Mali, people had gathered around a few battery-powered television sets in their community to watch the evening news. And that's how they first learned of the natural disaster in Canada. Only a handful of the 4500 residents of Sanankoroba knew what ice was, but they had seen for themselves the images of the destruction it had wreaked in Canada.

Moussa Konate, a former teacher in Sanankoroba who now works with CUSO on self-help development projects in the village, says that after that, the people of Sanankoroba did what comes naturally to them. They informed neighbouring villages that their friends in Canada were in trouble and then said special Friday prayers for them in the village mosque. They sent delegations to the capital Bamako, 30 kms from Sanankoroba, to ask CUSO employees what an ice storm was all about and what actually happened to people and to their dairy cows when the electrical power was cut in the middle of a Canadian winter. They went back to Sanankoroba, which itself has no electricity, and held a special village meeting to explain that in Canada a lack of electricity was something very serous, that people could actually freeze to death in unheated homes. The community then came up with 40,000 CFA francs (about $100 Canadian) to send to Sainte-Elisabeth as emergency aid for victims of the devastating ice storms. This may not seem like much, until one takes into account that in Mali, the average per capita income is about $350 for an entire year.

On behalf of the village, Mr. Konate then sent a faxed message of sympathy and news of the "emergency aid" to their friends in Saint Elisabeth. There the message of sympathy evoked deep emotions and damp eyes. In Sanankoroba, they still don't understand what all the fuss is about. As Mr. Konate puts it, "In Malian culture, it is completely normal to help out those in need. After all, the people in Sainte Elisabeth are our friends, our brothers."

Toronto Globe & Mail, Canada 1998

4 LINKS MET BY UNDP

NOTE: The link partner met is indicated in bold type

Bangladesh

BRAC* with Monnikendam Holland

Jalchatra with Boston UK

Nowshera/Nijera Kori* with Eksjo Sweden

Rajshahi with Kristiansand Norway

Sunderban with Tiverton UK

Bolivia

Cochabamba with Nantes France

Burkina Faso

Dedougou with Noordwijk Holland

Ethiopia

REST* with Waddinxveen Holland

Guatemala

Patzun with Krakeroy Norway

San Martin with Frederikstad Norway

Madagascar

Tsiadana with Auray France

Mali

Bamako with Angers France

Kita with Voorschoten Holland

Mourdiah with Hennebont France

Sanankoroba with Sainte Elisabeth Canada

Mozambique

Beira with Gothenburg Sweden

Nicaragua

Masaya with Leicester UK

Peru

Villa El Salvador with Arnhem Holland

Senegal

Rufisque with Nantes France

Tambacounda with La Roche sur Yon France

Uganda

Entebbe with Ashkalon Israel

Entebbe with County of Dorset UK

Fort Portal with Hoje-Taastrup Denmark

Jinja with Guelph Canada

Kabale with Tiverton UK

Kampala with Delano USA

Kampala with Kirklees UK

Kasese with Eidsberg Norway

Vietnam

Dong Da with Choisy-le-Roi France

Haiphong with Lahti-Lahti Finland

Haiphong with Livorno Italy

Haiphong with Seattle USA

Hoa Binh with Oberhausem Germany

Ho Chi Minh City (1st district) with Arcueil France

Hue with Lille France

Hue Province with Nord-Pas de Calais Region France

Ky Anh with MSAVLC** UK

Uong Bi with Pitea Sweden

Zimbabwe

Bulawayo with Aberdeen UK

ChegutuwithHintonCanada

Masvingo with Middlesborough UK

Mutare withHaarlem Holland

* BRAC, Nijera Kori and REST are national NGOs

** MSAVLC is a NGO

5 INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL CONTACT POINTS

** denotes member of WACLAC

International Associations
Commonwealth Local Government Forum
35 Great Smith Street
London SW1P 3BJ
United Kingdom
tel:(44)-171-664-3190
fax:(44)-171-799-1731
E-mail: clgf@compuserve.com

International Union of Local Authorities (IULA)**
World Secretariat
Laan Copes Van Cattenburch 60A, 2585-GC
The Hague
Netherlands
tel: (31)-70-3066066
fax:(31)-70-3500496
E-mail: iula@iula-hq.nl

METROPOLIS**
61 rue de Babylon
75007 Paris
tel:(33)-1-5385-6267
fax:(33)-1-5385-6269
E-mail: sg@metropolis.org

Summit Conference of Major Cities of the World**
c/o International Affairs Division
Bureau of Citizens and Cultural Affairs
Tokyo Metropolitan Government
2-8-1, Nishi Shinjuku, Tokyo 163-01
Japan
tel:(81)-3-5388-3164
fax:(81)-3-5388-1329
E-mail: tokyopr@ntt.fr

Towns and Development
Laan Copes Van Cattenburch, 2585-GC
The Hague
tel:(31)-70-3502789
fax:(31)-70-3502753
E-mail: townsdev@worldaccess.nl

World Associations of Cities and Local Authorities Coordination (WACLAC)
18 rue Saint-Leger
1204 Geneva
Switzerland
tel:(41)-22-310-3091
fax:(41)-22-310-3270
E-mail: camval@ville-ge.ch

World Federation of United Towns (UTO)**
60 rue de la Boetie
75008 Paris
tel:(33)-1-5396-0580
fax:(33)-1-5375-0581
E-mail: cites-unies@wanadoo.fr

Regional Associations
African Community Development Initiative (ACDI)
2 Juna Court, Fife Street
Bulawayo
Zimbabwe
tel:(263)-9-72538
fax:(263)-9-72127

African Union of Local Authorities (IULA-AULA)
PO Box 6852, Harare
Zimbabwe
tel:(263)-4-726289
fax:(263)-4-726289
E-mail: iula@iafrica.harare.com

Arab Towns Organisation (ATO) **
PO Box 68160
Kaifan 71962
Kuwait
tel:(965)-484-9708
fax:(965)-484-9626
E-mail: ato@ato.net

Caribbean Local Government Association
Town Hall
Spanish Town
Jamaica
Citynet (Asia and Pacific)
Secretariat Office
5F, International Organizations center
Pacifico-Yokohama, 1-1-1 Minato Mirai
Nishi-ku Yokohama 220-0012
Japan
tel:(81)-45-223-2161
fax:(81)-45-223-2162
E-mail: citynet@po.iijnet.or.jp

Council of European Municipalities and Regions (IULA-CEMR)
14 rue du Castiglione
75001 Paris
tel:(33)-1-4450-5959
fax: (33)-1-4450-5960
E-mail: cemr@ccre.org
Eurocities
18, square de Meuus
B-1050 Brussels

Belgium
tel:(32)-2-552-08-88
fax:(32)-2-552-08-89
E-mail: info@eurocities.be
IULA-ASPAC
Gedung Mitra Praja 2nd floor
Jl. Sunter Permai Raya no. 1
Sunter
PO Box 1286/JKU
Jakarta 14350

Indonesia
tel:(62)-21-640-8449
fax:(62)-21-640-8446
E-mail: IULAAP@cbn.net.id
IULA-CELCADEL (Latin America)
Agustin Guerrero 219
Y Pacifico Chiriboga
Quito
Ecuador
tel:(593)-2-469366
fax:(593)-2-435205
E-mail: iula@iula.org.ec

IULA-EMME (East Mediterranean and Middle East)
Sultanahmet
Yerebatan Cad. 2
Istanbul
Turkey
tel:(90)-212-511-1010
fax:(90)-212-519-0060
E-mail: iulaemm@ibm.net

IULA-FEMICA (Central America)
3era calle poniente
87 avenida #4446
Colonia Escalon
San Salvador
El Salvador
tel:(503)-263-7348
fax:(503)-263-7367
E-mail: femicasalva@salnet.net

IULA-NORAM (North America)
c/o National League of Cities
1301 Pennsylvania Ave. NW
Washington, D.C. 2004
USA
tel:(1)-202-626-3000
fax:(1)-202-626-3043
E-mail; brooks@nlc.org

Municipal Development Programme for Sub-Saharan Africa
Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office
7th floor, Huruzda House
14 Baker Avenue
Harare
Zimbabwe
tel: (263)-4-774-385
fax:(263)-4-774-387

Municipal Development Programme for Sub-Saharan Africa
Western and Central Africa Module
01 BP 3445
Cotonou
Benin
tel:(229)-30-05-60
fax:(229)-30-19-76

Red de Asociaciones de Municipios de America Latina**
Agustin Guerrero 219
y Pacifico Chiriboga
Quito
Ecuador
tel:(593)-2-469366
fax: (593)-2-435205

Union des Villes Africaines (UVA)**
77, rue Jaafar Essadek
Rabat - Agdal
Morocco
tel:(212)-7-67-26-76
fax:(212)-7-67-26-68

6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

African Community Development Initiative

South-North International Conference on Linking for Development, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, November 1990, The Bulawayo Appeal ?From Dependency to Justice’, Bulawayo: ACDI.

African Union of Local Authorities

Investing in Local Government in Africa, Harare, AULA.

Angers Town Hall

Angers-Bamako 1974-1994, 20 Ans de Partenariat, Angers: Angers Town Hall.

Angers Town Hall

Angers-Bamako, Vingt-trois ans de jumelage cooperation, Angers: Angers Town Hall.

Angers Town Hall (1998)

Angers Bamako, Un Partenariat Ouvert Sur L’Avenir, Angers: Angers Town Hall.

Asia Urbs Secretariat

Brochure, Brussels: Asia Urbs Secretariat.

Association of Netherlands Municipalities and International Union of Local Authorities (1995)

Local Challenges to Global Change, The Hague: IULA/VNG.

Association of Netherlands Municipalities

International Project Unit of the Association of Netherlands Municipalities (VNG), The Hague: VNG.

Batty, Peter (1992)

Global issues, a Local Challenge: Towns and Development Manual, The Hague: T&D.

Batty, Peter and Musa Njiru (1992)

Safari, London, LGIB

Bigio, Anthony (1994)

Decentralized Cooperation and the World Bank, paper presented at the MDP Workshop on Decentralised Cooperation, Kwekwe, September 1994, Washington DC: World Bank.

Bohm, David (1996)

On Dialogue, London: Routledge.

Bond, Barbara (1996)

North/South Linking, Who Benefits?, Chesterfield, UKOWLA.

Chetonar Dak

At a Glance Report of Chetonar Dak, Sunderban: Chetonar Dak.

Choisy-le-Roi

20 Annees de Jumelage, Choisy-le-Roi: Choisy-Le-Roi Town Hall.

Cites-Unies France

Le groupe-pays ?France-Mali?, a leaflet, Paris: Cites-Unies France.

City of Guelph (1994)

Jinja, Uganda and the City of Guelph’s Partnerships Program, March 1994, Guelph: Guelph City Hall.

City of Guelph (1995)

Federation of Canadian Municipalities Partnerships Program, Guelph/Jinja, Uganda, November 1995, Guelph: Guelph City Hall.

City of Leicester

Leicester’s Twinning Links, Leicester: Leicester Town Hall.

Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-General for Development (1992)

Decentralized Cooperation, Objectives and methods - 16 answers to 16 questions, Brussels; Commission of the European Communities.

Commonwealth Local Government Forum (1997a)

Annual Report 1996-97, London: CLGF.

Commonwealth Local Government Forum (1997b)

Memorandum Submitted to Commonwealth Heads of Government, October 1997, London: CLGF.

Commonwealth Local Government Forum (1997c)

Bulletin, Number 2/97, September 1997, London: CLGF.

Commonwealth Local Government Forum (1997d)

Good Local Government and Sustainable Development (Asia Region), A Roundtable for Senior Policy Makers, Islamabad, May 1997, London: CLGF.

Commonwealth Local Government Forum (1999)

Commonwelth Local Government Good Practice Scheme - Guidelines for Grant Applications, London: CLGF

Communaute Urbaine de Lille (1994)

Livre Blanc sur la Cooperation Decentralisee, Lille: Communaute Urbaine de Lille.

Council of European Municipalities and Regions (1996)

Reference Book, Paris: CEMR.

Devon Aid (1997)

Devon Aid News, Linking Devon with Africa, Autumn 1997, Tiverton: Devon Aid.

Eurocities (1997)

Tacis City Twinning, No. 2, July 1997. Brussels: Eurocities.

European Commission. Directorate General IB (1997)

URB-AL, Information Circular No. 3, February 1997, Brussels: European Commission.

European Commission, Secretariat-General (1997)

A Europe of Towns and Cities, a practical guide to town-twinning, European Commission European Commission

Les Jumelages de Villes et d’Europe - Les etoiles d’or du jumelage, European Commission, Action Communautaire en faveur des jumelages de villes.

Falk, Hakan & Wallberg, Borje (1996)

Twinning programmes with Local Authorities in Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, Stockholm: SIDA.

Federation of Canadian Municipalities (1996)

Two-Way Street:...how international municipal cooperation benefits Canadian municipalities, Ottawa: FCM.

Federation of Canadian Municipalities (1997a)

Annual Review 1996-97, Ottawa: FCM.

Federation of Canadian Municipalities (1997b)

Forum, Volume 21, No. 4, June/July 1997, Ottawa: FCM.

Federation of Canadian Municipalities (1997c)

Municipal Partnerships, General Information, Ottawa: FCM.

Federation of Canadian Municipalities (1998)

FCM International, Volume 5, No. 1, Spring 1998, Ottawa: FCM.

Forum Syd (1997)

Swedish NGOs in Development and Solidarity, Stockholm: Forum Syd.

Frederikstad Town Hall

Knowledge gives Friendship, Frederikstad: Frederikstad Town Hall.

Friendship North/South

Cultura Colaboracion Amistad, Oslo: Friendship North/South.

Friendship North/South (1995)

Strategy Document 4 year period 1994-97, Oslo: Friendship North/South.

Gerrard, Pat (1995)

Grassroots Development Education: Guide to Good Practice, The Hague: T&D.

Grace, Dr. Clive (1999)

Tackling Poverty Through Partnership - The "Shoulder to Shoulder" Approach, Torfaen: Torfaen County Borough Council.

GRET (1996)

Evaluation du Partenariat Lille - Saint-Louis du Senegal, Paris, groupe de recherche et d’echanges technologiques (GRET).

GRET (1999)

Evaluation des partenariats de cooperation decentralisee du "groupe pays Senegal" et de leurs homologues senegalaises, Paris, Groupe de recherche et d’echanges technologiques (GRET).

Haidara, Tania (1998)

La Cooperation Decentralisee au Mali - Evaluation du jumelage Angers-Bamako,Bamako.

Hennebont Comite des Jumelages (1996)

La Lettre des Jumelages, No. 4 - janvier, 1996, Hennebont: Hennebont Comite des Jumelages.

Hewitt, W. (1995)

Partnerships that work, Ottawa: Canada Foundation for the Americas.

Honey, Tim (1997)

International Resource Cities Report, Washington DC: ICMA.

Horgan, Drew (1997)

Its Trends and Possibilities, paper presented at the International Symposium on Cross-border Cooperation by Local Government at Matsue City, Japan, The Hague: IULA.

International City/County Management Association

ICMA International Resource Cities Program, Washington DC: ICMA.

International Union of Local Authorities (1993)

Report; Workshop on Decentralised Cooperation, Accra, The Hague: IULA.

International Union of Local Authorities

The Platform for Capacity and Institution Building (CIB), The Hague: IULA.

International Union of Local Authorities

Promoting Municipal International Cooperation - an IULA Policy Paper on Local Government’s Role in Decentralised Development Cooperation, The Hague: IULA.

International Union of Local Authorities

Brochure, The Hague: IULA.

International Union of Local Authorities (1995)

Into the new millennium, A Framework for Action in Municipal International Cooperation, The Hague: IULA.

International Union of Local Authorities (1997)

Local Government World, Issue No. 4, Bi-monthly Newsletter (1997), The Hague: IULA.

International Union of Local Authorities (1999)

Municipal International Cooperation, The Role of Government in Decentralised Development Cooperation, The Hague: IULA.

International Union of Local Authorities (Africa Section)

Success through cooperation, Harare: IULA (Africa Section) .

International Union of Local Authorities (Africa Section)

Recent Activities/Achievements, Harare: IULA (Africa Section).

International Union of Local Authorities (Africa Section)

Update - our plans for 1997 and 1998, Harare: IULA (Africa Section).

International Union of Local Authorities (Africa Section)

Newsletter, Issue No. 8, January 1998, Harare: IULA (Africa Section).

Katarikawe, C. (1994)

A Study on Decentralized Cooperation Programmes in Uganda, Paper presented at the MDP Regional Workshop on Decentralized Cooperation programmes in Eastern & Southern Africa, at Kwekwe, Zimbabwe, September 1994.

Kenya One World Linking Forum

Brochure, Nairobi: K-OWL.

Kenya One World Linking Forum (1994)

Links and Development, Vol.1 No.1, Nairobi, K-OWL.

Knight, Jane and Mwaiselage, Agnes

__________

43 IULA (Africa Section) changed its name in June 1998, to the African Union of Local Authorities (AULA).

Improved methodologies for decentralised cooperation, Towns & Development: The Hague.

Knight, Jane (1992)

North South Linking, A Northern Perspective, Jane Knight.

Lafont, Marie Jeanne et al (1988)

Rapport sur les jumelages-cooperation, Paris: UTO.

Lancashire County Council, Environmental Policy Unit

Gulu-Lancashire Local Agenda 21 Link, Preston: Lancashire County Council.

Leicester Masaya Link Group (1997)

Noticias Latinas, Newsletter of Leicester Masaya Link Group, Issue 3, March 1997, Leicester: Leicester Masaya Link group.

Local Government International Bureau (1994a)

Global Partnerships, United Kingdom Links with Communities in Developing Countries, London: LGIB.

Local Government International Bureau (1994b)

Global Linking Directory 1994, a directory of United Kingdom local links with developing countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America, London: LGIB.

Local Government International Bureau (1994c)

Technical Cooperation Guide, London: LGIB.

Local Government International Bureau (1997a)

Annual Report 1996-7, London: LGIB.

Local Government International Bureau (1997b)

Know How Fund Local Authority Technical Links Scheme, London: LGIB.

Local Government International Bureau (1997c)

Linking News, Issue No. 7, October 1997, London: LGIB.

Local Government International Bureau (1999)

Global Partnerships - local authority case studies, London: DFID/LGIB

Local Government Management Board (1998)

Building on success: transnational partnerships for better services to local communities, London: LGMB

Magne, Samantha (1997)

Exploring the Nature of North/South Linking, its wider context and implications, MscThesis, Cranfield University.

Malombe, Joyce

Nyeri Municipal Council/Reston (USA) Partnership: A successful story of decentralized cooperation, Harare: MDP.

Maseko, Gladys (1992)

Local Initiatives for Sustainable Development, Country Paper, Zimbabwe, Bulawayo:ACDI.

Materu, Jossy (1994a)

Decentralized cooperation in Eastern and Southern Africa, Paper presented at the MDP workshop on Decentralised Cooperation held at the municipality of Kwekwe, Zambia, September 1994.

Materu, Jossy (1994b)

Decentralized Cooperation in Eastern and Southern Africa, Documenting the results of the MDP National Studies and regional Workshop on Decentralized Cooperation, Paper presented at the International Meeting on Decentralized Cooperation held in Strasbourg, France, November 1994.

Materu, Jossy (1995)

International Conference on Local Initiatives for Sustainable Development in the SADC Region, The Hague: Towns & Development.

Materu, Jossy (1997)

The Role and experiences of the Municipal Development Programme in Zimbabwe, Paper presented at the resource Mobilisation for Economic Development Workshop organised by IRED at Masvingo, Zimbabwe, January 1997.

Materu, Jossy (1998)

Decentralized Cooperation in the context of the Municipal Development Programme, Paper presented at the First International Summit of African Local Governments (Africities), Abidjan, Ivory Coast, January 1998.

Metropolis

Technical Assistance Scheme to Metropolises, Paris: Metropolis.

Metropolis

Brochure on World Association of the Major Metropolises, Paris: Metropolis.

Mungai, Salim

Kenya One World Linking Forum Update 1990-1997, Nairobi, K-OWL.

MSAVLC (1996)

Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Newsletter No. 108, August 1996, Coventry: MSAVLC.

Municipal Development Programme

Brochure, Washington DC: World Bank.

National Platform on Municipalities and Development Cooperation (1995)

Municipal International Cooperation in the Netherlands, The Hague.

Novib (1993)

Characteristic for Novib’s approach, The Hague: Novib.

Novib

Summary annual report 1996, The Hague: Novib.

Otto, Paska (1999)

Strengthening Ugandan Women’s Leadership and Marketing Capacity in Jinja, Uganda, Guelph: City of Guelph

Partenariat Lille Saint-Louis du Senegal (1997)

Rapport d’activites, 1997, Lille, Partenariat Lille Saint-Louis du Senegal.

Pasteur, David (1998)

An evaluation of the Uganda Decentralised Development Cooperation Project, LGIB and LGMB, London.

Platform Duurzam Haarlem (1998)

In Search of Sustainability - Haarlemmers dialogue with friends, Local Agenda 21, Bureau Milieu en Samenleving, Haarlem.

Rajshahi-Aksjonen (1997)

Rajshahi Aksjonen 1997, a report, Kristiansand: Rajshahi-Aksjonen.

Region Nord-Pas de Calais, Conseil Regional

Relations et Solidarites Internationales, Lille: Region Nord-Pas de Calais.

Sheldrake, Mark (1998)

Development of Small Enterprises in Uganda - Outcome of preliminary study into the potential for establishing Private Sector led Enterprise Agencies in Kampala, Jinja and Mbale, London, Local Government Management Board.

Sister Cities International (1997a)

Annual Report 1996-97, Alexandria: SCI.

Sister Cities International (1997b)

Where is my sister city?, Alexandria: SCI.

Sister Cities International (1997c)

What is my sister city doing?, Alexandria: SCI.

Sister Cities International (1997d)

Sister Cities News, Winter 1997/98, Alexandria: SCI.

Sister Cities International (1998a)

Inside SCI, Volume 2, No. 1. Alexandria, SCI.

Sister Cities International (1998b)

1998 Sister Cities International Directory, Alexandria: SCI.

Sister Cities International

Finding a Sister City, Alexandria: SCI.

Sister Cities International

Building Your Local Program, Alexandria, SCI.

Smith, R., Okawa, Keiko and Leggett, David

Decentralised Cooperation: effectively delivering aid through local authorities, London: Japan Local Government Centre.

Smith, Vernon

North/South Linking for Sustainable development, Local Agenda 21 Roundtable Guidance, London: LGMB.

Smith, Vernon

Decentralised Cooperation on Africa, London: LGIB.

Smith, Vernon

Promoting "Municipal International Cooperation" - An IULA Perspective on the Role of Local Government in Decentralised Cooperation, a paper, London: LGIB.

South-North International Linking for Development

South-North International Linking for Development Conference, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 28-30 November 1990, Conference Report: Bulawayo.

Spiers, David

African Connections, Local Government Overseas Links - a Chief Executive’s View, London: LGIB.

Summit Conference of Major Cities of the World

Brochure, Tokyo: Secretariat to the Summit Conference of Major Cities of the World.

Swedish International Development Agency (1997)

SIDA’s development cooperation in Eastern and Central Europe, Stockholm: SIDA.

Sy, Ousmane (1997)

Decentralisation et Gouvernance au Mali, paper presented at the UNDP’s 1st Annual Forum on Governance in Africa, Addis Ababa, July 1997,

Thorpe, Eleanor (1997)

Links as Development Education Resources, Preston: Lancashire Development Education Group.

Tiverton Sundarban Support Group (1998)

Newsletter, May 1998, Tiverton: Tiverton Sundarban Support Group.

Towns and Development (1992)

Berlin Action & Charter Agenda, The Hague: T&D.

Towns and Development (1995a)

Guide to Good Practice: Fair Trade,The Hague, T&D.

Towns and Development (1995b)

Guide to Good Practice: Grassroots Development Education, The Hague, T&D.

Towns and Development (1996)

Global Cities Programme, Invitation for Action, The Hague, T&D.

Towns and Development (1997)

The Organisation, its Achievements and Plans: Summary Recent Action up to Aug. 1997, The Hague: T&D.

United Kingdom One World Linking Association

Community Linking Handbook, Chesterfield, UKOWLA.

United Kingdom One World Linking Association (1997a)

One World Linking, Newsletter No. 35, Autumn 1997,Chesterfield: UKOWLA.

United Kingdom One World Linking Association (1997b)

North-South School Linking, A Few Do’s and Don’ts, Chesterfield: UKOWLA.

United Nations (1996)

Resolution 1996/31, Consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organisations, ECOSOC, New York: United Nations.

United Nations Development Programme (1991)

Cities, People & Poverty - Urban Development Cooperation for the 1990s, NY: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1995)

Public Sector management, Governance and Sustainable Human Development, a discussion paper, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1996a)

Cities Combating Poverty - Report on the Interregional Panel of Mayors Meeting on Sustainable Governance for Poverty Alleviation, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1996b)

Urban Management Programme Annual Report 1995, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1997a)

Governance for sustainable human development, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1997b)

Participatory Local Governance, LIFE’s Method and Experience, 1992-1997Technical Advisory Paper 1, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1997c)

Reconceptualising Governance, Discussion paper 2, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1997d)

Capacity Development, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1997e)

Technical Cooperation Among Cities in Urban Management, The Coming Urban Century Report on the Workshop of Mayors to Identify Priority needs and Best Practices in Urban Management, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1997f)

International Conference on Governance for Sustainable growth and Equity, New York, July 1997, Draft Interim Report, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1997g)

Human Development Report, 1997, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme (1999)

Crisis, Opportunity and Change: Building Tomorrow’s UNDP, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme

UNDP and Urban Development Cooperation, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme

UNDP and the Urban Explosion, Crisis and Opportunity, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme

Programme for Accountability and Transparency, Annual Report 1997, New York: UNDP.

United Nations Development Programme

World Alliance of Cities Against Poverty, A pamphlet, Geneva: UNDP.

United Nations Fund for Population Activities (1996)

The State of World Population, Changing Places: Population, Development and the Urban Future, New York: UNFPA.

United Towns Organisation (1996)

Draft Partnership Charter among European Local Authorities for Sustainable Development, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation (1997)

Newsletter, No. 1, May 1997, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation (1998a)

Africa South of the Sahara - Supplement to the United Towns magazine No. 1, February 1998, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation (1998b)

Villes ouvertes, No. 4 - Avril 1998, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation

Brochure, Paris:UTO.

United Towns Organisation

40 ans de FMCU, booklet, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation

How to twin Towns, leaflet, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation

Town-twinning, leaflet, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation

Cooperation-Twinning, leaflet, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation

Jumelage - Guide, Paris: UTO.

United Towns Organisation

1957 - 1997, UTO’s fortieth anniversary, The XVth Congress (June 1998), Paris: UTO.

Urban Authorities Association of Uganda

Brochure of UAAU, Kampala: UAAU.

Urban Authorities Association of Uganda (1997)

Development Cooperation Workshop, 11-12 November 1997, Kampala: UAAU.

Urban Authorities Association of Uganda (1998)

Urban Focus, Issue 1, March 1998, Kampala: UAAU.

Urban Councils Association of Zimbabwe (1994)

Information Bulletin, Harare: UCAZ.

Urban Councils Association of Zimbabwe (1997)

Urban Voice, Issue No. 5, September-November 1997, Harare: UCAZ.

Vietnam Union of Friendship Organizations

Brochure of VUFO, Hanoi: VUFO.

World Associations of Cities and Local Authorities Coordination

Brochure, Geneva: WACLAC.

Zelinsky, Wilbur (1991)

The Twinning of the World: Sister Cities in Geographic and Historical Perspective, University Park, Pennsylvania State University.

ACRONYMS

ACDI-African Community Development Initiative
AULA-African Union of Local Authorities
BRAC-Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee
CEMR-Council of European Municipalities and Regions
CIDA-Canadian International Development Agency
CIS-Commonwealth of Independent States
CLGF-Commonwealth Local Government Forum
CUSO-Canadian Universities Overseas
EU-European Union
FCM-Federation of Canadian Municipalities
FMCU-World Federation of United and Twinned Towns
IRED-Development Innovations and Networks
IULA-International Union of Local Authorities
LDC-Least Developed Country
LGIB-Local Government International Bureau (UK)
K-OWL-Kenya One World Linking Forum
MIC-Municipal International Cooperation
MDP-Municipal Development Programme (of the World Bank)
MSAVLC-Medical and Scientific Aid Committee for Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia
SADC-Southern African Development Community
SIDA-Swedish International Development Agency
T&D-Towns and Development
TCDC-Technical Cooperation among Developing Countries
UAAU-Urban Authorities Association of Uganda
UKOWLA-United Kingdom One World Linking Association
UNCHS-United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
UNDP-United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO-United Nations Educational Science and Cultural Organization
UNFPA-United Nations Fund for Population Activities
UTO-United Towns Organisation (formerly known as the World Federation of United and Twinned Towns – FMCU above, refers)
VNG-Association of Netherlands Municipalities

UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY

Resolution 2861 (XXVI)

2861 (XXVI), Town twinning as a means of international cooperation

The General Assembly,

Considering that:

(a) It is a function of the United Nations to serve as the nodal point of the efforts of all peoples to achieve peace and international co-operation,

(b) It is necessary therefore to establish active co-operation between the Secretariat and collaborating local and regional bodies whose objectives are the same as those of the Organization.

Convinced that:

(a) Town twinning is an exceptionally valuable means of co-operation in that between countries, it brings into contact not only local leaders but also whole populations,

(b) If carried out between towns in industrialized countries and those in developing countries, twinning affords, in addition to the intellectual and spiritual enrichment of those parties to it, technical and material support for growing towns which is sometimes considerable and can be brought to bear without administrative expenditure and without detriment to the sense of equality between the partners,

(c) The international co-operation of local bodies can play an important role in bringing peoples together,

Recalling:

(a) Economic and Social Council resolution 1028 (XXXVII) of 13 August 1964, in which the Council considered town twinning as one of the means of co-operation that should be encouraged by the International Organization,

(b) General Assembly resolution 2058 (XX) of 16 December 1965 in which the Assembly requested the Economic and Social Council, in collaboration with the appropriate non-governmental organizations in consultative status, to prepare a programme of measures through which the United Nations and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization might take concrete steps to encourage further the achievement of the largest possible number of twinned towns,

(c) Economic and Social Council resolution 1217 (XLII) of 1 June 1967, in which the Council considered that there are non-governmental organizations in consultative status which can assist in promoting town twinning as a means of co-operation and recommended that the United Nations Development Programme bear in mind the experiences of those non-governmental organizations when arranging for the implementation of such projects,

Noting that:

(a) Member States support the principle of international co-operation between local bodies, and that the twinning already undertaken throughout the world has had positive results,

(b) The United Towns Organization, a non-governmental organization in consultative status, in category I, with the Economic and Social Council and in consultative status, in category A, with the United Nations Eeducational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, has acquired unquestionable competence in the field of twinning co-operation, was expressly described by the Fifteenth General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, in its resolution 9.11 of 15 November 1968 on peace, as an instrumentality which mobilizes public support in communes for understanding and international co-operation, and has been recognized by a number of States as serving the public interest,

(c) The resources available to the United Towns Organization for the implementation of such twinning are not commensurate with the corresponding needs,

1. Considers that world cooperation between municipalities is a natural complement to co-operation between States and intergovernmental organizations;

2. Invites the Secretary-General:

(a) To study, in liaison with the United Towns Organization and those non-governmental organizations whose orientation is essentially communal and municipal with the same universalist character and having the same objectives, the means by which the United Nations and its specialized agencies can contribute effectively to the development of international cooperation between municipalities;

(b) To study any suggestions for world co-operation between municipalities;

3. Requests the Secretary-General to report to the Economic and Social Council at its fifty-fourth session on the results of the measures taken by him, pursuant to the present resolution, to revitalize methods of co-operation and facilitate the participation of local and regional bodies in development.

2027th plenary meeting,

20 December 1971.

Return to MagNet - Send comments

	Cities/towns in USA	Cities in Denmark	Cities in Netherlands	Cities in Australia
Number of American, Danish, Dutch and Australian city/ town links with cities/towns in other countries:
with Northern cities/towns -
in Europe (excl. Scandinavia)	563	149	336	40
in Scandinavia	68	506	13	-
in Japan	357	1	12	42
in Canada/USA	50	8	12	71
in Australia/New Zealand	70	1	1	38

Total:	1,108	1,108	374	191

with Eastern European and CIS cities/towns with Southern cities/towns -	243	37	287	2

in Asia: East Asia	117	5	15	13
South-East Asia	45	-	5	21
South Asia	17	1	18	-

Total:	179	6	38	34

in Africa	94	6	91	-
in Latin America	368	1	32	2
elsewhere	8	2	9	1

Total:	649	9	170	37

Total number of links in USA, Denmark, Netherlands and Australia with cities in other countries	2,000	711	841	230

	Bamako	1994
Mourdiah	Hennebont	Mourdiah Development Association
(seal and signature)	(seal and signature)	(seal and signature)